ANTIPREDATOR DEFENSES IN BIRDS AND MAMMALS

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By TIM CARO

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS

Copyright © 2005 The University of Chicago
All right reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-226-09436-6

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Contents

Preface, scope, and acknowledgments......................................................xiii1 Definitions and predator recognition1.1 Introduction.........................................................................11.2 The predatory sequence...............................................................31.3 Definitions..........................................................................71.4 Ability of prey to recognize predators...............................................131.5 Recognition by young animals.........................................................151.6 Relaxed selection....................................................................241.7 Observer bias........................................................................281.8 Summary..............................................................................302 Morphological traits to avoid detection2.1 Introduction.........................................................................332.2 Background matching..................................................................352.3 Concealing shadow....................................................................552.4 Disruptive coloration................................................................592.5 Apostatic selection..................................................................612.6 Summary..............................................................................643 Behavioral mechanisms to avoid detection3.1 Introduction.........................................................................673.2 Nest site selection in birds.........................................................683.3 Behavior reducing the probability of predators detecting nests.......................843.4 Refuges..............................................................................873.5 Reduced activity.....................................................................943.6 Changes in foraging under risk of predation..........................................1003.7 Changes in reproduction under risk of predation......................................1103.8 Summary..............................................................................1124 Vigilance and group size4.1 Introduction.........................................................................1154.2 Measures of vigilance................................................................1164.3 Benefits of individual vigilance.....................................................1184.4 Costs of individual vigilance........................................................1224.5 Effects of group size on vigilance...................................................1234.6 Why don't individuals cheat?.........................................................1364.7 Vigilance in mixed-species groups....................................................1434.8 Summary..............................................................................1495 Factors affecting vigilance5.1 Introduction.........................................................................1515.2 Distance from conspecifics and perceived group size..................................1525.3 Position in the group................................................................1565.4 Sentinels............................................................................1595.5 The influence of cover...............................................................1625.6 Age and parity.......................................................................1665.7 Sex differences and dominance........................................................1705.8 Miscellaneous factors................................................................1725.9 Predator abundance...................................................................1745.10 Interspecific differences in vigilance..............................................1765.11 Summary.............................................................................1786 Conspecific warning signals6.1 Introduction.........................................................................1816.2 Acoustic constraints on alarm calls..................................................1836.3 Costs of warning signals.............................................................1876.4 Benefits of warning signals..........................................................1906.5 Alarm calls between species..........................................................2016.6 Variation in alarm calls.............................................................2056.7 Development of conspecific warning signals...........................................2156.8 Use of warning signals in deception..................................................2196.9 Summary..............................................................................2217 Signals of unprofitability7.1 Introduction.........................................................................2257.2 The evolution of aposematism.........................................................2277.3 Mechanisms by which predators select prey............................................2307.4 Aposematism in birds.................................................................2357.5 Aposematism in mammals...............................................................2427.6 Pursuit deterrence...................................................................2447.7 Summary..............................................................................2618 Antipredator benefits of grouping8.1 Introduction.........................................................................2658.2 The dilution effect..................................................................2678.3 The Trafalgar effect.................................................................2748.4 The confusion effect.................................................................2758.5 Predator "swamping"..................................................................2808.6 Miscellaneous mechanisms.............................................................2858.7 Position in the group................................................................2858.8 Primate groups.......................................................................2938.9 Ecocorrelates of antipredator grouping in homeotherms................................2998.10 Summary.............................................................................3019 Morphological and physiological defenses9.1 Introduction.........................................................................3059.2 Body size............................................................................3069.3 Forms of locomotion..................................................................3129.4 Spines and quills....................................................................3149.5 Dermal plates and thickened skin.....................................................3179.6 Weapons used for feeding.............................................................3199.7 Sexually selected weaponry...........................................................3199.8 Malodor and unpalatability...........................................................3249.9 Venom resistance.....................................................................3279.10 Life history characteristics........................................................3299.11 Summary.............................................................................33210 Nest defense10.1 Introduction........................................................................33510.2 Scope of nest defense activities....................................................33710.3 Distraction displays................................................................34310.4 Costs of nest defense...............................................................34610.5 Benefits of nest defense............................................................34710.6 Effects of predation risk on nest defense...........................................35010.7 Parent's renesting potential........................................................35410.8 Parental sex........................................................................36010.9 Parental interactions...............................................................36310.10 Offspring age......................................................................36410.12 Offspring condition................................................................37110.13 Parental defense in mammals........................................................37510.14 Summary............................................................................37711 Mobbing and group defense11.1 Introduction........................................................................38111.2 Definition of mobbing...............................................................38311.3 Variation in mobbing behavior.......................................................38411.4 Costs of mobbing....................................................................38611.5 Benefits of mobbing.................................................................38711.6 Mobbing and group size..............................................................39511.7 Mobbing and mixed-species associations in birds.....................................39811.8 Group defense in mammals............................................................40411.9 Summary.............................................................................41112 Flight and behaviors of last resort12.1 Introduction........................................................................41312.2 Freezing and immobility.............................................................41412.3 Defense calls and flash coloration..................................................41512.4 Counterattack.......................................................................41712.5 Methods of escape...................................................................41812.6 Flight distance.....................................................................42312.7 Flight and weight gain in birds.....................................................42612.8 Autotomy and deflection of attack...................................................43112.9 Fear screams........................................................................43412.10 Death feigning.....................................................................43812.11 Summary............................................................................44013 Framing questions about antipredator defenses13.1 Introduction........................................................................44313.2 Synergism between morphology and behavior...........................................44513.3 Defenses shown by different prey to different predators.............................44713.4 Prey employ different defenses against different predators..........................44713.5 Different prey use different defenses against the same predator.....................45013.6 Prey summon several defenses against the same predator..............................45313.7 Predator-prey coevolution...........................................................45613.8 Ten pressing questions..............................................................45813.9 Why are defenses imperfect?.........................................................46313.10 Summary............................................................................464Appendix: Scientific names of vertebrates mentioned in the text..........................467References...............................................................................487Prey species index.......................................................................577Subject index............................................................................587

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