CYCLOPÆDIA OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. First Period. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO 1400. age presents us with historical chronicles, theological treatises, religious, political, and narrative poetry, in great abundance, written both in Latin and in the native tongue.* HE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is The earliest name in the list of Anglo-Saxon essentially a writers is that of Gildas, generally described as a branch of the missionary of British parentage, living in the first Teutonic, the half of the sixth century, and the author of a Latin language spo- tract on early British history. Owing to the obken by the scurity of this portion of our annals, it has been the inhabitants of somewhat extraordinary fate of Gildas to be reprecentral Eu-sented, first as flourishing at two periods more than a rope immedi- century distant from each other; then as two differately before ent men of the same name, living at different times; the dawn of and finally as no man at all, for his very existence history, and is now doubted. Nennius is another name of this which constitutes the foun- age, which, after being long connected with a small dation of the modern Ger- historical work, written, like that of Gildas, in Latin, man, Danish, and Dutch. has latterly been pronounced supposititious. The Introduced by the Anglo- first unquestionably real author of distinction is Saxons in the fifth century, ST COLUMBANUS, a native of Ireland, and a man it gradually spread, with the of vigorous ability, who contributed greatly to people who spoke it, over the advancement of Christianity in various parts of nearly the whole of England; Western Europe, and died in 615. He wrote relithe Celtic, which had been gious treatises and Latin poetry. As yet, no eduthe language of the aboriginal people, shrinking cated writer composed in his vernacular tongue: it before it into Wales, Cornwall, and other remote was generally despised by the literary class, as was parts of the island, as the Indian tongues are now the case at some later periods of our history, and retiring before the advance of the British settlers Latin was held to be the only language fit for reguin North America.* lar composition. From its first establishment, the Anglo-Saxon tongue experienced little change for five centuries, the chief accessions which it received being Latin terms introduced by Christian missionaries. During this period, literature flourished to a much greater extent than might be expected, when we consider the generally rude condition of the people. It was chiefly cultivated by individuals of the religious orders, a few of whom can easily be discerned, through their obscure biography, to have been men of no mean genius. During the eighth century, books were multiplied immensely by the labours of these men, and through their efforts learning descended into the upper classes of lay society. This It is now believed that the British language was not so immediately or entirely extinguished by the Saxons as was generally stated by our historians down to the last age. But certainly it is true in the main, that the Saxon succeeded the British language in all parts of England, except Wales, Cornwall, and some other districts of less note. The first Anglo-Saxon writer of note, who composed in his own language, and of whom there are any remains, is CEDMON, a monk of Whitby, who died about 680. Cædmon was a genius of the class headed by Burns, a poet of nature's making, sprung from the bosom of the common people, and little indebted to education. It appears that he at one time acted in the capacity of a cow-herd. The circumstances under which his talents were first developed, are narrated by Bede with a strong cast of the marvellous, under which it is possible, however, to trace a basis of natural truth. We are told that he was so much less instructed than most of his equals, that he had not even learnt any poetry; so that he was frequently obliged to retire, in order to hide his shame, when the harp was moved towards him in the hall, where at supper it was customary for each person to sing in turn. On one of these * Biographia Britannica Literaria: Anglo-Saxon Period. By Thomas Wright, M.A. 1 FROM EARLIEST occasions, it happened to be Cædmon's turn to keep guard at the stable during the night, and, overcome with vexation, he quitted the table and retired to his post of duty, where, laying himself down, he fell into a sound slumber. In the midst of his sleep, a stranger appeared to him, and, saluting him by his name, said, "Cædmon, sing me something." Cædmon answered, "I know nothing to sing; for my incapacity in this respect was the cause of my leaving the hall to come hither." Nay," said the stranger," but thou hast something to sing." "What "Sing the Creation," must I sing?" said Cædmon. was the reply, and thereupon Cadmon began to sing verses "which he had never heard before," and which are said to have been as follows: Nu we sceolan herian* heofon-rices weard, metodes mihte, and his mod-ge-thonc, wera wuldor fæder! swa he wundra ge-hwas, ece dryhten, oord onstealde. He ærest ge-scéop ylda bearnum heofon to hrófe, halig scyppend! tha middan-geard mon-cynnes weard, ece dryhten, æfter teode, firum foldan, frea ælmihtig! 66 Now we shall praise for the children of men the guardian of mankind, Cadmon then awoke; and he was not only able to repeat the lines which he had made in his sleep, but he continued them in a strain of admirable versification. In the morning, he hastened to the townreeve, or bailiff, of Whitby, who carried him before the Abbess Hilda; and there, in the presence of some of the learned men of the place, he told his story, and they were all of opinion that he had received the gift of song from heaven. They then expounded to him in his mother tongue a portion of Scripture, which he was required to repeat in verse. Cadmon went home with his task, and the next morning he produced a poem which excelled in beauty all that they were accustomed to hear. He afterwards yielded to the earnest solicitations of the Abbess Hilda, and became a monk of her house; and she ordered him to transfer into verse the whole of the sacred history. We are told that he was continually occupied in repeating to himself what he heard, and, "like a clean animal, ruminating it, he turned it into most sweet verse."† Cædmon thus composed many poems on the Bible histories, and on miscellaneous religious subjects, and some of these have been preserved. His account of the Fall of Man is somewhat like that given in Paradise Lost, and one passage in it might almost be supposed to have been the foundation of a corresponding one in Milton's sublime epic. It is that in which Satan is described as reviving from the consternation of his overthrow. A modern translation into English follows: But around me lie iron bonds; presseth this cord of chain; a loathlier landskip; Me hath the clasping of these rings, so that with aught I cannot hath fastened by the neck. Thus perceive I that he knoweth my mind, and that he knew also, the Lord of hosts, that should us through Adam evil befall, about the realm of heaven, where I had power of my hands."* The specimen of Cædmon above given in the original language may serve as a general one of Anglo-Saxon poetry. It will be observed that it is neither in measured feet, like Latin verse, nor rhymed, but that the sole peculiarity which distinguishes it from prose is what Mr Wright calls a very regular alliteration, so arranged, that in every couplet there should be two principal words in the line beginning with the same letter, which letter must also be the initial of the first word on which the stress of the voice falls in the second line. A few names of inferior note-Aldhelm, abbot of *Thorpe's edition of Cædmon, 1832. 2 Malmsbury, Ceolfrid, abbot of Wearmouth, and Felix of Croyland-bring down the list of Anglo-Saxon writers to BEDE, usually called the Venerable Bede, who may be allowed to stand at the head of the class. He seems to have spent a modest studious life, unchequered by incident of any kind, at the monastery of Wearmouth, where he died in 735. His works, consisting of Scriptural translations and commentaries, religious treatises, biographies, and an ecclesiastical history of the AngloSaxons, which is the only one useful in the present age, were forty-four in number; and it is related that he dictated to his amanuensis, and completed a book, on the very day of his death. Almost all the writings of these men were in Latin, which renders it less necessary to speak particularly of them in this place. Our subsequent literary history is formed of comparatively obscure names, until it presents to us the enlightened and amiable King ALFRED (848-901).* in whom learning and authorship graced the royal state, without interfering with its proper duties. He translated the historical works of Orosius and Bede, and some religious and moral treatises, perhaps also Esop's Fables and the Psalms of David, into the Anglo-Saxon tongue, designing thereby to extend their utility among his people. No original compositions certainly his have been preserved, excepting the reflections of his own, which he takes leave here and there to introduce into his translations. The character of this monarch, embracing so much gentleness, along with manly vigour and dignity, and displaying pure tastes, calculated to be beneficial to others as well as himself, seems as if it would have graced the most civilised age nearly as much as it did one of the rudest. Chair of Bede. After Alfred, the next important name is that of ALFRIC, archbishop of Canterbury, who died in 1006. This learned prelate was a voluminous writer, and, like Alfred, entertained a strong wish to enlighten the people; he wrote much in his native tongue, particularly a collection of homilies, a translation of the first seven books of the Bible, and some religious treatises. He was also the author of a grammar of the Latin tongue, which has given him the sub-name of the Grammarian.' Alfric himself declares that he wrote in Anglo-Saxon, and in that avoided the use of all obscure words, in order that he might be understood by unlettered people. As he was really successful in writing simply, we select a specimen of Anglo-Saxon prose from his Paschal homily, adding an interlinear translation: Hethen cild bith ge-fullod, ac hit ne bræt na (4) heathen child is christened, yet he altereth not his hiw with-utan, dheah dhe hit beo with-innan his shape without, though he be within awend. Hit bith ge-broht synfull dhurh Adames changed. He is brought sinful through Adam's forgægednysse to tham fant fate. Ac hit bith athwogen disobedience to the font-vessel. But he is washed *Where double dates are thus given, it will be understood that the first is the year of the birth, and the second the year of the death, of the individual mentioned. miht fram eallum synnum with-innan, dheah dhe hit withfrom all sins inwardly, though he oututan his hiw ne awende. Eac swylce tha halige wardly his shape not change. Even 80 the holy fant water, dhe is ge-haten lifes wyl-spring, is ge-lic font water, which is called life's fountain, is like on hiwe odhrum wæterum, & is under dheod brosin shape (to) other waters, and is subject to cornunge; ac dhæs halgan gastes ruption; but the Holy Ghost's might ge-nealacth tham brosnigendlicum wætere, dhurh comes (to) the corruptible water through sacerda bletsunge, & hit mæg svthan (the) priests' blessing, and it may afterwards lichaman & sawle athwean fram eallum synnum, body and soul wash from all sin, dhurh gastlice mihte. through ghostly might. Cynewulf, bishop of Winchester, Wulfstan, archbishop of York, and some others, bring down the list of Anglo-Saxon authors to the Conquest, giving to this portion of our literature a duration of nearly five hundred years, or about the space between Chaucer and our own day. During this time, there were many seats of learning in England, many writers, and many books; although, in the main, these have now become matter of curiosity to the antiquary only. The literature may be said to have had a kind of protracted existence till the breaking up of the language in the latter part of the twelfth century; but it was graced by no names of distinction. We are here called upon to advert to the historical production usually called the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which consists of a view of early English history, written, it is believed, by a series of authors, commencing soon after the time of Alfred, and continued till the reign of Henry II. Altogether, considering the general state of Western Europe in the middle ages, the literature of our Anglo-Saxon forefathers may be regarded as a creditable feature of our national history, and as something of which we might justly be proud, if we did not allow ourselves to remain in such ignorance of it. INTRODUCTION OF NORMAN FRENCH. The Conquest, by which a Norman government and nobility were imposed upon Saxon England, led to a great change in the language. Norman French, one of the modifications of Latin which arose in the middle ages, was now the language of education, of the law courts, and of the upper classes generally, while Saxon shared the degradation which the people at large experienced under their conquerors, Though depressed, yet, as the speech of the great body of the people, it could not be extinguished. Having numbers on its side, it maintained its ground as the substance of the popular language, the Norman infusing only about one word for every three of the more vulgar tongue. But it was destined, in the course of the twelfth century, to undergo great grammatical changes. Its sounds were greatly altered, syllables were cut short in the pronunciation, and the terminations and inflections of words were softened down until they were entirely lost. Dr Johnson expresses his opinion, that the Normans affected the Anglo-Saxon more in this manner than by the introduction of new words. So great was the change, that the original Anglo-Saxon must have become, in the first half of the thirteenth century, more difficult to be understood than the diction of Chaucer is to us. The language which resulted was the commencement of the present English. Its origin will afterwards be traced more minutely. |