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the King gave the following as his reasons for imprisoning Mr. Cameron: Captain Cameron I imprisoned because he went to Kasala to my enemies, the Turks, and I had given him a letter for the Queen, and he came without bringing me an answer. Messrs. Flad, Stern, Rosenthal, Makerer, and Kerons I had chained because they have abused me; and the rest of them I imprisoned because I found them together with the others. They have done nothing. I even don't know them." Mr. Cameron had quarrelled with his secretary, M. Bardel, a Frenchman, who entered the King's service, and tried to stir up enmity against England. He went to the Emperor Napoleon with a letter at the same time as the letter to the Queen was sent off, and the Emperor at once returned an answer. Mr. Cameron also sent back from the country of the Turks, to Abyssinia, an interpreter, Samuel, who had been given him by the King, and this man had repeated Cameron's expressions. When Mr. Cameron made his excuses to the King for going to the Turkish tribes, the King very justly replied, "It was not your business to interfere. Who told you to do so? Neither I myself nor your Queen gave you order to go down to Kasala." In January, 1864, Earl Russell's letters to Mr. Cameron arrived, and were taken to the King, who, after learning that there was nothing in them in answer to his letter, sent Mr. Cameron, as a prisoner, to Magdala. He appears to have suspected that treachery was at work. On January 1, 1866, Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, a Turk, but an English subject, formerly Deputy-Governor of Aden, was sent up with a very small retinue with a letter from her Majesty, requesting the release of Mr. Consul Cameron, and the other Europeans. Colonel Merewether, the resident at Aden, afterward spoke of Mr. Rassam's mission "as a great mistake," from its want of dignity. Mr. Rassam was received with every mark of favor by the King, and was always well treated by him. Colonel Merewether reported that "a regular constituted embassy from England could not have been treated with greater honor and attention." It seems that the letter from the Queen which Mr. Rassam delivered to King Theodore had been mistranslated, so as to make it read that any gift Theodore expressed a wish for through Mr. Rassam she would send to him. At the same time the King seems to have got into his possession a letter which Captain Cameron had given to one of the native chiefs, requesting that he might be protected if the Queen's troops came to the country to take revenge for his imprisonment. Under various pretexts Theodore detained Mr. Rassam and the other Europeans, while Mr. Flad was sent home with a letter, requesting that the Queen's "kasa," or presents, for the release of the prisoners should consist of artisans, "to give light to our eyes." On July 10, 1865, Mr. Flad arrived in England with the letters, and

made full report of all the difficulties, and the causes which had led to the complications. He gave it as his opinion that it was desirable "to finish with this man in peace." On August 13, 1866, Colonel Merewether, on the understanding that force was not to be thought of, reported to Lord Stanley that Theodore's requests should be frankly and most liberally met. He said: "It has been mentioned that it would be best to try and enter into some engagement with the King, that, before the people now going to work for him should enter his country, the Europeans there should have left it. I look upon it as most dangerous to the success of the whole scheme, should this be attempted." In August and September, 1866, the ministry, acting through Lord Stanley, expended over three thousand pounds upon presents for King Theodore, and engaged artisans to go to Abyssinia. On September 1, 1866, Mr. Flad wrote to King Theodore that he had been received by the Queen personally, that the artisans and presents were coming, and that he had promised, in the King's name, that after he had received those presents the captives would be liberated. On October 4, 1866, the ministry determined to adopt the policy which Colonel Merewether reported would be fatal to the whole scheme, viz., not to send the artisans and presents until the captives were sent to Massowah. Lord Stanley wrote to King Theodore, in the Queen's name, in this sense, although Mr. Flad, had previously reported that the presents were to be sent. In January, 1867, Mr. Flad, being unable to return to Abyssinia, sent a copy of the Queen's letter, which apparently had also been mistranslated. On its arrival Theodore wrote to Mr. Rassam: "As Solomon fell at the feet of Hiram so I, beneath God, fall at the feet of the Queen and her Government and her friends. I wish you to get them (the skilful artisans), via Matemma, in order that they may teach me wisdom, and show me clever arts. When this is done, I shall make you glad, and send you away by the power of God." On January 8, 1867, Mr. Rassam wrote in reply: "I have already written regarding Mr. Flad, and the articles which my Queen had ordered for your Majesty as a token of her friendship, and they are to be sent at once to Matemma." The artisans and articles were, nevertheless, detained at Massowah, and not sent to Theodore; the captives were in consequence not liberated, and thus the war between England and Abyssinia was brought on.

The first troops which were to form part of the expedition against King Theodore landed in the latter months of 1867.* In the first days of January, the chief commander, Sir Robert Napier, arrived from India, and in the course of January the remainder of the troops followed. The progress of the expedition, during the first weeks, was slow and devoid

*See ANNUAL CYCLOPÆDIA for 1867.

of interest. No enemy was encountered; the only difficulties to struggle against were a great mortality among the horses and mules, and a great scarcity of water. Both ceased when the expedition advanced farther into the interior. At the beginning of March, only onehalf of the distance from the coast to Magdala had been marched through. The advance, under Colonel Phayre, were misled by a native guide, into a road leading to Messino, where inaccessible rocks put such obstacles to their march, that they preferred to return. The arrival of General Napier, with the vanguard, inspired new life into the expedition. For the march through the second half of the distance between Magdala and the coast, only as many weeks were needed as months had been consumed on the first half of the road. This result was greatly due to Consul Munzinger, a German-Swiss by birth, who has long resided in the country, is married to a native, and has a thorough knowledge of the whole country. Munzinger had preceded the army, and succeeded in concluding, in the name of England, a treaty with Gobazie, of Waag, the most powerful enemy of Theodore. Gobazie was at that time with his army between Magdala and Debra Tabor, and when Munzinger left him, to return to the British camp, Gobazie sent along with him a number of natives, to open roads for the British army. Henceforth the advance was rapid. General Napier, on March 28th, left the common road, ascended the highland of Wadda, and then, marching along the Djidda, reached a road which Theodore, with a great expense of time and labor, had made for his artillery. All this time Theodore had not yet made any serious attempt to check the English army. But now General Napier was informed, by a letter from Mr. Rassam, that a rapid advance of the Abyssinian troops, perhaps a surprise, was meditated. General Napier immediately crossed the river, and took up his headquarters between Djidda and the Bashilo, upon the elevated plain of Talanta. The troops marched upon the road of Theodore, which is thirty feet wide, but so steep that many beasts of burden tumbled down and perished. After a reconnoissance toward Magdala, General Napier, on April 8th, advanced to the Bashilo River. From a second reconnoissance toward Magdala, it was learned that the fortress was armed with 28 guns, and appeared to be unconquerable. But General Napier made all the preparations for an immediate attack. Previously Theodore was summoned to surrender unconditionally. To this demand no reply was made, and the British troops continued their advance. When the first brigade crossed the Bashilo, they saw the enemy in front of Magdala, occupying strong positions. Theodore did not wait until he was attacked, but on April 10th (Good Friday) opened the battle himself by a furious onset on the first brigade. He was repulsed with a loss of about 500 dead and 1,500 wounded, and would

have fared still worse had not darkness put an end to the pursuit. The English, according to an official report, had no dead, and only sixteen wounded, among whom was Captain Roberts. On the two following days Theodore, who had retired into the fortress, sent all the Europeans who were in his power, both captives and artisans, into the British camp; but Napier, not satisfied with this, insisted on unconditional surrender. When this was refused, and the truce which had been granted expired on the 13th of April, the British troops advanced toward the fortress. Theodore's prospects had been greatly injured by the discouragement which had spread in his army, in consequence of which thousands of his men had left him. One of the strongest positions around Magdala, the citadel of Islamgie, fell into the hands of the British by the treason of one of the Abyssinian chiefs. On the 14th, after a bombardment of three hours, an assault of the fortress of Magdala itself was made. Theodore made a brave resistance, but he could not arrest the onset of the English, who penetrated into the fortress. The Abyssinians laid down their arms. Theodore was found dead, having fallen, as the English were told, by his own hand. The English loss was small, from ten to fifteen wounded. The loss of the Abyssinians was sixty-eight dead and two thousand wounded. Two sons of Theodore were among the captives. Into the hands of the conquerors fell four golden crowns, twenty thousand dollars, twenty-eight guns, ten thousand shields, ten thousand spears, and a large amount of silver vessels, jewels, etc. The following extracts from the official report of General Napier give some details of the capture of Magdala and the death of Theodore:

"At the request of Dejach Alema (the son-in-law of Theodore) I had promised to abstain from hostilities for twenty-four hours. After the lapse of forty-eight hours, Theodore had not surrendered himself. Reliable information reached me that his army was recovering from their defeat; that many soldiers who had been unable to return to Magdala on the night of the 10th had since rejoined their ranks; that fresh defensive arrangements were being made, and that Theodore and his chiefs even contemplated a night attack on the second brigade, encamped on the lower ground. I, therefore, prepared to attack the enemy's position. I had originally intended first to assault Fahla from the side which fronted our camp, and was screened from the fire of Islamgie and Selassie. But under the altered condition of the enemy, Theodore having by death, wounds, and desertion lost half of his army and his bravest chiefs, I determined to attack Islamgie by the King's road. All arrangements for this had been considered and the positions for the artillery reconnoitred and fixed upon, when information was brought to me that Theodore had left Magdala, and that many of the chiefs, with their followers, wished to surrender. I agreed

to accept their submission, and ordered Sir Charles Staveley to advance on Islamgie, relaxing no precautions that I had considered necessary for the attack. The scarcity of water rendered it impossible to retain any considerable body of cavalry before Magdala; my personal escort, under a native officer, only remained, and, with a few details of other corps, was sent under the command of Lieutenant Scott, aide-de-camp, to watch the west side of Magdala, where they took up a good position until the arrival of the cavalry, under Colonel Graves, who completed the investment up to the Kaffir Burr Gate, which was watched by the Gallas. The Bashilo was held by the headquarters détachment of the Scinde Horse, under Major Briggs, and detachments of the Third Dragoon Guards, Third and Twelfth cavalry, under Major Miller, to secure that point and provide against the escape of the enemy in that direction by the Minjerra ravine. A detachment of the Beloochees, under Lieutenant Beville, ascended by the spurs of Fahla, and occupied that important position, where they were reënforced from the second brigade by the headquarters wing of the Tenth native infantry, under Colonel Field. The artillery was placed in position, and the troops advanced, preceded by Captain Speedy, of the intelligence department, with a small escort of the Third Light cavalry, under Lieutenant-Colonel Loch, to communicate with the chiefs who wished to surrender, and to prevent any misunderstanding. No resistance was offered. Sir Charles Staveley effected an entrance to Islamgie and Selassie through a difficult crevice in the rocky escarps. It would be impossible to arrive at any correct estimate either of the numbers of the armed men who laid down their weapons or of the mass of people, men, women, and children, whom we found on Islamgie. It was necessary to collect and guard the arms that were surrendered. It was also necessary to send down all the disarmed soldiers and the miscellaneous multitude that followed them to the plain below before I could proceed actively against Magdala.

"Theodore himself, having abandoned his attempt to escape, was making preparations for defence, and offering us defiance in front of Magdala. By three o'clock the Abyssinians having nearly all cleared away from Islamgie, I ordered the attack of Magdala to be at once carried out. The entrance of Magdala is three hundred feet above the terreplain of Islamgie, and the ascent is by an extremely steep and rugged path. Viewing the very difficult nature of the approach, I made the attack as strong as possible, and massed the whole of my artillery fire to cover it, in order to overpower the enemy's resistance and prevent the heavy casualties which I should otherwise have incurred.

"The assaulting force consisted of the second brigade, led by the Thirty-third (Duke of Wellington's) regiment, accompanied by detach

ments of the Royal Engineers and Madras and Bombay Sappers and Miners, with means of clearing away obstacles, the first brigade to be in close support. I concentrated the fire of the artillery on the gateway and the north end of the fort, which were crowded with the houses of the soldiers, avoiding as much as possible the higher part of the interior occupied by the Abyssinian prisoners and non-combatants. The enemy carefully concealed themselves from view, so that the place seemed almost deserted, although, when entered by our troops, it was found to be thronged with soldiers who had thrown away their arms, released prisoners, and the numerous voluntary and involuntary followers of Theodore's fortunes. The artificial defences consisted of stone walls, loop-holed and surmounted by strong and thick barricades of thorny stakes, with narrow stone gateways; the lower one built up in the interior, the higher one being seventy feet above the lower, and approached by a very steep narrow path winding among the soldiers' huts. The attack was ably conducted by Sir Charles Staveley, and gallantly carried out by the troops. Fortunately, the defences were very unscientifically constructed, and, though the attack was met by a sharp fire from the enemy, yet they could not direct it on the head of the storming party without exposing themselves to the rapid and fatal fire of the Snider rifle, and our loss was, in consequence, very small. The Royal Engineers and Sappers and leading sections of the Thirty-third regiment were long before they could force an entrance, and during that time nine officers and men of the Royal Engineers and Sappers received wounds or contusions. At length an entrance was found by means of the ladders, near the gate and by the leading men of the Thirty-third, who scaled a rock and turned the defences of the gateway. The enemy was driven to the second barricade, and when that was carried all resistance ceased.

"Among the dead near the outer gateway were found several of Theodore's most devoted chiefs. One of them, Dejach Enjeda, had urged Theodore to massacre all the prisoners, a course from which he was dissuaded by others. Close to the second gateway lay the body of Theodore. At the moment when the barricade was forced by the Thirty-third, Theodore fell, as I have since learned, by his own hand. His troops immediately fled, some by the Kaffir Burr Gate, which was found choked with arms that had been cast away in their flight. Of these fugitives the greater part fell into the hands of the Gallas, and the remainder, seeing the fate of their comrades and hearing the taunting invitations of the Gallas, returned to Magdala and surrendered.

"The command of Magdala was intrusted to Brigadier-General Wilby, who held it with the Thirty-third and part of the Forty-fifth regiments. So thickly was the fortress inhabited, and so great was the crowd of people, that it

was no easy matter to establish order. Guards were placed at the gates and such places as required protection. The family of Theodore were committed to the care of Mr. Rassam, who was requested to do all that was in his power for their comfort and protection. The Abyssinian prisoners were released from their chains, and the very numerous body of Abyssinians whose histories and condition it was impossible at the time to investigate were collected in an open space in the centre of the fortress, where they could be protected, and where they quickly threw up small huts for themselves and remained until their final departure. "On the 15th, the Fourth (King's Own) regiment relieved the Thirty-third in Magdala, and the Forty-fifth were removed to Islamgie to reenforce the detachment of the Tenth native infantry, under Colonel Field, for the protection of the captured arms and ordnance and to furnish working-parties for their destruction. The inhabitants of Magdala were collected at Arogie, where great vigilance was necessary to protect them from the Gallas, who were lying in wait both day and night for opportunities of plundering and destroying them. Notwithstanding the friendly relations with the Queens of the Gallas, their people were so little under restraint that it was frequently necessary to fire upon them to drive them from molesting our water-parties and carrying off the mules. A party of them, in search of plunder, even dared to make their way into Magdala, where they were captured by the guard of the Thirtythird regiment.

"On the 15th and 16th the disarmed soldiers and people of Magdala made their exodus from Arogie. Every consideration was shown them, and they were allowed to take all their property. The Arogie defile was guarded by infantry, and their procession, after crossing the Bashilo, was guarded by cavalry patrols until they reached Waddeba.

"On the morning of the 17th orders were issued to clear every one out of Magdala by four P. M. At that hour, the whole of the captured ordnance having been destroyed, the gates of Magdala were blown up, and the whole of the buildings were committed to the flames. The wounded Abyssinians who had no friends to take charge of them were conveyed into our hospitals. The elephants and heavier ordnance having been sent in advance on the 15th, on the 18th of April the force recrossed the Bashilo, on its return to the coast."

The object of the expedition having been attained, General Napier deemed it necessary that some provision should be made for the large numbers whose interests and safety had entred in Theodore's existence, and who remained disarmed and unprotected, and exposed to merciless plunder and slaughter at the hands of the wild tribes, which circumstances had for the moment converted into allies of England. The disposal of the fortress of Magdala frst demanded attention. This strong position,

situated geographically in the country of the Wollo-Gallas, from whom it was finally wrested by Theodore about ten years ago, had imposed, in his hands, an effectual check upon the encroachments of the Gallas on Christian Abyssinia. General Napier desired, in the interests of Christianity, to place the stronghold in the possession of Wagshum Gobazie, the de facto ruler and principal chief of this portion of Abyssinia. But when he sent for his lieutenant, the Dajaz Mashashah, the latter excused himself, in his master's name, from accepting the charge, alleging as his reason that it would require so large a garrison to hold it, that it would be a source of weakness rather than of strength. Wagshum Gobazie himself, notwithstanding his repeated invitations to the English, through Brigadier-General Merewether, to come quickly to his aid, had removed himself and his army to a distant quarter in pursuit of objects of his own, and it was impossible for General Napier to await a reply to the letter which was addressed to him on the subject of Magdala. General Napier therefore destroyed the gates of the fort, burnt every thing on the mountain that was combustible, and abandoned it. Several claimants for its possession had, in the mean time, addressed General Napier regarding it. One of these was the Chief of Daoont, a small territory lying adjacent to Magdala. Werkait, one of the two rival Queens of the Gallas, had also. put forward her claims, as likewise had Masteeat, the other and more powerful of the Galla Queens. Shortly after the arrival of Werkait's letter, soliciting that the fortress might be delivered to her, the queen herself arrived. She remarked to General Napier: "We fought with Theodore as long as we could, and when his power was too strong for us to resist any longer, my son submitted to him, on receiving a promise of good treatment, notwithstanding which he was inhumanly cut to pieces, and thrown over the precipice of Magdala; and now I come to see the grave of my enemy Theodore, and the place where my son fell." It was deemed inexpedient to comply with this wish. As news arrived of the approach of Queen Masteeat, Queen Werkait took a hasty departure, apprehensive lest she should be intercepted by her more powerful rival. Queen Masteeat had responded very effectually to the request of the English to close all avenues by which the late king could have escaped, and thus she came to General Napier in the character of an established ally. To her request for the possession of Magdala, it was replied that, Gobazie's lieutenant having declined to receive it, the place would be abandoned, after dismantling it and burning all of it that could be so destroyed, as a mark of the anger of the British at the ill-treatment of our countrymen, as well as of our abhorrence of the cruelties which Theodore had committed there.

General Napier with his staff, and Theodore's

son under the charge of Captain Speedy, arrived in England in the last days of June, and met with an enthusiastic ovation. He had conferred upon him the title of Lord Napier of Magdala. The son of Theodore, who was, soon after his arrival, presented to the Queen, will be educated in England. His mother had died in the English camp, on May 15th. The released Abyssinian captives, namely, twenty gentlemen, eight ladies, twenty-two children, and twenty-one followers, arrived in England a few weeks before Lord Napier.

The first effect of the death of Theodore, and the withdrawal of the English troops, upon the condition of Abyssinia, was a relapse into anarchy. Theodore had been the first ruler for many centuries who had acquired the power to make his authority felt all over the country, and to begin the consolidation of Abyssinia into one compact empire.

A letter from Massowah, dated September 17th, to the Paris Moniteur, gives the following review of Abyssinian politics at that time: "One of the three great provinces of Abyssinia, Amhara, is under the absolute sovereignty of Gobazie, who has taken advantage of the English expedition against Theodore, to extend his possessions.

"Magdala, after having been burnt by the English, has been occupied by Masteeat, one of the queens of the Wollo-Gallas, a Mohammedan tribe. The escarpments of this fortress being natural, they could not be destroyed. Immediately after the city was taken possession of by Masteeat, a rival, in the person of Queen Werkait, set up claims, in which she was supported by the King of Shoa. Werkait is one of the two queens ruling over the Wollo-Gallas, in the name of their sons, who are cousins. The frontier of the Wollo-Gallas tribe is Bashilo.

"The country to the north of Bashilo, Lasta, and Jidjou, were governed during the English expedition by the maternal uncle of Gobazie; but Tapis Ali has commenced to urge the rights which he pretends to have, through his mother, upon Lasta, and through his father upon Jidjou. This chief is popular in both these countries, but he is not in a position to resist the forces of Gobazie. On the other hand, the son of Theodore, Mechacha, who is in revolt against Gobazie, has returned to Kwara, his father's country. Gobazie has not yet succeeded in suppressing this revolt, and his power has been seriously compromised in the southeast and northwest, but it is secure throughout the whole of central Abyssinia.

"Gobazie has rebuilt Gondar, the ancient capital, and has proclaimed himself Emperor under the name of Hazie Tecla Giorghis. He has recently addressed a letter to Kassa, King of Tigré, and sent him at the same time a present of several horses. This latter, who now resides at Adowah, received and responded to these overtures in a friendly manner. These relations have given rise to different interpretations. According to some, Gobazie has simply

required of Kassa to make submission to him; according to others, he has demanded of the King, that he send an envoy with money to Cairo in order to obtain a bishop, and Kassa has refused to comply. Whichsoever may be true, the rainy season would not permit hostilities at present. Amhara, where grain is abundant, offers to Gobazie resources which he would not find in the Tigré; besides which, it appears preferable for both rivals to remain allies for some time yet in order that they might be better able to resist the rebels.

"In case war should break out in the future, more or less distant, it would take place under very nearly the following conditions: Gobazie, whose army is devoted to him and accustomed to fighting, has a strong cavalry force, but his troops are badly armed. The effective troops of Kassa are very numerous. He has a good supply of cannon and muskets, and he has the advantage of being near the sea. But in spite of his generous character and his proud courage, he is not yet completely master of his people. The province of Tigré has not only been ravaged for several years past by grasshoppers, but is, besides, devasted by partisans who, in virtue of certain ancient customs, levy ruinous contributions in grain upon the inhabitants, leaving many of them, frequently, without seed to sow."

ADLER, GEORGE J., Ph. D., a German scholar and philologist, born in Germany, in 1821; died at the Bloomingdale Insane Asylum, August 24, 1868. He came to the United States at the age of twelve years, after an excellent elementary course in the gymnasium of his native town, and eventually entered the University of New York, where he graduated with high honors in 1844. In 1846 he was appointed Professor of German in his Alma Mater, and continued in that position till 1854. Having a decided taste for philological studies, he very early commenced the preliminary studies for his elaborate German-English and English-German Dictionary, the first edition of which was published in 1848, when he was but twentyseven years of age. He subsequently made considerable additions to it, and followed with a German grammar, reader, and other text-books. His dictionary, undoubtedly the best work of its kind extant, soon won him a reputation, to which his later works materially added. His works were in great demand in Europe, and several of them, his edition of Goethe's "Iphigenie," in particular, were translated into French and Spanish. He also wrote much for the periodical press. In 1860 his mind became affected, probably from excessive study, and he was sent to the Bloomingdale Asylum. His mania was of a religious character, but he had lucid intervals, in which he wrote magazine articles, or prepared works for the press, with all his former ability. In the last of these, he prepared for Putnam's Magazine an interesting review of Lessing's "Nathan the Wise."

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