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III

THE NON-URBAN HIGH SCHOOL IN MASSACHUSETTS AND NEW YORK

I

THE STATE AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

Most discussions of secondary education seem to have reference to high schools in cities and very large towns. In view of the fact that small high schools are a very important factor in American secondary education, both in regard to number and enrollment, this study will treat of public high schools in non-urban towns and rural districts, or those with a population of less than 8,000. After a brief exposition of the organization of education in Massachusetts and New York, we shall discuss at some length state aid and control of secondary education. The chief sources are the latest school laws of the two states, and the annual reports of the Massachusetts Board of Education and the New York State Education Department. We have also drawn to a considerable extent on two articles by Dr. E. J. Goodwin, in the EDUCATIONAL REVIEW, XXXI and XXXV, and on the proof sheets of E. A. Snyder's dissertation, State administration of rural high schools.

In spite of the well-known disadvantages of small high schools, they have many advantages, so that in results accomplished, the high schools outside of cities seem to compare very favorably with those in cities. Mr. J. W. Macdonald seems to think that pupils in small high schools are superior to those in large ones. A statistical comparison-in so far as the results of written examinations justify any comparison-is available for New York. In the state academic examinations of 1905-1906, high schools in villages equaled those in city schools, tho the latter were ahead in the percentage of honor papers.

The secondary systems of Massachusetts and New York are

of very high rank, tho of a widely different nature. The New York educational system is the most highly centralized one in the United States, while that of Massachusetts is at nearly the opposite extreme. The New York high schools are, therefore, on a somewhat uniform plane of excellence. On the other hand, the Massachusetts system of extreme respect for the individualism of communities produces some of the best schools in the world, and also a few very poor ones.

The local unit of educational administration differs in the two states. In Massachusetts the county has nothing to do with education except to maintain and manage truant schools. The local unit is the town; but "two adjacent towns, each having less than five hundred families or householders, may vote to form one high school district for establishing a high school." The law compels all towns to obtain professional supervision; every town must employ a superintendent of schools or be in a superintendency union or in a superintendency district. New York is for purposes of education divided into school districts, in which the business is chiefly managed by the district meetings, with some power in the hands of elected trustees. When a school district has become too large conveniently to meet and transact business, a union free school district is formed from the common school district from consolidation with one or more common school districts. A further increase of population leads to the formation of chartered cities, with a special kind of school organization. A union free school district may establish a secondary school, called an academic department, or take over and manage a private academy, thereupon likewise termed an academic department. Common school districts seem to have no legal sanction for forming academic departments, but sometimes do So. A much larger division than the common or the union. free school district is the school commissioner district-not including incorporated cities,—which usually has about the same boundary lines as a legislative assembly district. The executive officer is the school commissioner, who is popularly elected, and is not required to satisfy any educational test.

Since the state has the ultimate control over education, its

legislation largely determines what the schools are to be. In Massachusetts the chief influence of the state over education is in the conditions of granting state aid and in certain mandatory legislation, such as that requiring towns of five hundred families to maintain a high school. Dr. E. A. Snyder thinks that the tremendous development of rural secondary education is due very largely to legislation that equalizes the economic burdens and that reacts so as to greatly increase favorable public sentiment. The educational powers and duties vested by law in the State of Massachusetts are lodged in the hands of the State Board of Education, consisting of the governor, lieutenant-governor, and eight other persons appointed by the governor, one each year, for a term of eight years. The executive officers of the board are the secretary and four agents. The control over local authorities is very small compared with the powers of many state superintendents and boards; the chief function of the Massachusetts Board of Education is "to advise, enlighten, and arouse, but not to compel." 2

New York not only controls education thru mandatory and permissive legislation and thru conditions of state aid, but it

Since this article was written, the legislature of Massachusetts has past a law making a change in the state educational authorities; our main conclusions are not altered, however. In accordance with an act of 1906 a commission on industrial education was appointed to foster and assist the establishment of agricultural and other industrial schools, which were aided by the state. By the act of 1909 this commission was consolidated with the state board of education, henceforth to be composed of nine uncompensated members, three of whom the governor, with the advice and consent of the council, is to appoint each year for a term of three years. The new board of education has the powers and duties that belonged to the former board of education and to the commission on industrial education before July, 1909. The present board of education appoints a commissioner of education, whose term is five years, but who is removable at any time by a two-thirds vote of the board. The intention seems to be to give the commissioner considerably more power than the secretary of the former board of education had. The board also appoints two deputy commissioners, and such other assistants or agents as may be necessary. This law is a manifestation of the centralizing tendency; and the wisdom of bringing industrial education under the direction of the state board of education can hardly be questioned.

Whitten, Public administration in Massachusetts, p. 24.

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also exercises important executive and judicial functions. The Board of Regents is composed of eleven members, one to be elected each year by the legislature for a term of eleven years. It exercises the authority of the University of the State of New York, which has great power over higher education. It also has certain legislative functions with reference to all the state educational activities, including elementary and secondary as well as higher education. The statutes and policies of the Board of Regents are executed by the Commissioner of Education, who is the general advisory and supervisory officer, as well as the final judicial authority in educational disputes. He advises the legislature and helps or hinders school bills. He directs the school commissioners, has charge of the twelve state normal schools, and manages the finances of the school system. At the close of the present term in 1910 the Commissioner will be elected by the Board of Regents for an indefinite term. Under the Commissioner are three assistant commissioners and many other officials, so that the State Education Department is very completely organized.

Within the last few years there has been a decided increase of state control in Massachusetts and New York. Just what is the present tendency is a little hard to determine. Altho Dr. Draper, the Commissioner of Education, has stated that he does not believe in too much state inspection or direction, the New York State Education Department does not seem inclined to give up any of its powers. In the Massachusetts reports for 1902-1903 and 1903-1904, Mr. Macdonald advocates a state high school; and in a later report we find the statement that the time is evidently ripe for a definite leadership by the central authority in Massachusetts, to shape and influence the trend and policy of the local high schools more directly.

Altho Massachusetts has always been a leader in setting a high educational standard before the country, as a state it has done very little in support of free public education. Less than 5 per cent. of its school revenues are derived from state taxation, and less than 2 per cent. from the permanent school funds, known as the Massachusetts School Fund, into which the state pays annually $100,000 until the principal shall be

$5,000,000. Other money appropriated by the state for the aid of education is taken from the treasury of the commonwealth. State aid to Massachusetts high schools may be classified under four heads: 1, direct subsidy; 2, reimbursement of tuition; 3, distribution of the income of the Massachusetts School Fund; 4, aid to superintendency unions. I and 2 benefit secondary education directly, while 3 and 4 apply to elementary as well as to secondary education.

1. Direct subsidy. A town of less than five hundred families that maintains a four-year high school receives annually $500 for the support of the school, provided that it has at least two teachers and keeps open for forty weeks, exclusive of vacations. But no town whose valuation per pupil in average membership in the public schools exceeds the corresponding average for the commonwealth, receives this subsidy; and the high school must have been approved by the State Board of Education.

2. Payment of tuition. Towns with five hundred families must maintain a high school. Those with less than five hundred families or householders, in which a public high school or its equivalent is not maintained, must pay the tuition of any resident child whose attendance at the high school of another town or city is approved by the school committee of his own town. Massachusetts was the first state in the Union, if not in the world, to compel all towns to provide free high school instruction. As this compulsion bore hard on many small and weak villages, there arose the policy of state reimbursement of high school tuition payments. Thus towns that have less than five hundred families and do not maintain a high school, receive one-half of the amount spent for tuition if their valuation is over $750,000, and the whole amount if their valuation is less. than that sum.

3. Distribution of the income of the Massachusetts School Fund. Towns with a valuation of not over $500,000 receive $500 annually, and $75 besides if their rate of taxation is $18 or more on the thousand; towns with a valuation of $500,000 to $1,000,000 receive $300; towns with a valuation of $1,000,000 to $2,000,000 receive $150; and those with a valua

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