Confucius, as containing the essence of all their sciences and moramountain, how art thou fallen! The grand machine is Confucius. lity. Nature had bestowed upon him a most amiable demolished, and the wise and the virtuous are no more. temper, and his moral deportment was altogether un- The kings will not follow my maxims: I am no longexceptionable. He acquired a distinguished reputation er useful on earth; it is, therefore, time that I should for humility, sincerity, the government of his appetites, quit it." On uttering these words he was seized with a disinterested heart, and a sovereign contempt of a lethargy, which brought him to the grave. He fiwealth. These rare qualities pointed him out as a pronished his honourable career in the 72d year of his age, per person to fill offices of importance and trust in the in his native kingdom, to which he had returned in government of his country, which he did with honour company with his disciples. It is frequently the fate to himself and advantage to the empire. These public of illustrious characters, never to be properly valued stations afforded him excellent opportunities of estima- till they are cut off by death; which was the case with ting with accuracy the true state of morals among his Confucius. The whole empire of China bewailed the countrymen, which at this time were dissolute and vi- loss of him, and erected innumerable edifices to percious in the extreme. He conceived the godlike idea petuate his memory, adorned with such honourable inof attempting a general reformation both in morals and scriptions as the following: "To the great master;" in politics, and his efforts for some time were attended "To the chief doctor;" "To the saint;" "To the with such remarkable effects, that he inspired his coun- wise king of literature ;""To the instructor of emtrymen with a just veneration for his excellent charac- perors and kings." All his descendants, even to ter, and gratitude for his exertions, being raised to a the present day, enjoy the honourable title and of station of the last importance in the kingdom of Lu. fice of mandarins, and are exempted from the payHere his counsels and advice were productive of the ment of taxes to the emperor, as well as the princes of most beneficial consequences, in establishing good or- the blood. The man who applies for the title of doctor, der, the due exercise of justice, concord, and decorum, must previously have made a present to a mandarin dethrough the whole kingdom. As it thus very natural- scended in a direct line from Confucius. The writings ly became an object of admiration, so, likewise, neigh- of this great man are esteemed by the Chinese as of bouring princes beheld with envy its growing happi- the highest authority, next to the five volumes, to which ness and prosperity; to destroy which they contrived he modestly acknowledges himself to have been much a fatal and effectual expedient. The king of Tsi being indebted. His works are, 1. The Tay-hio; "The Grand apprehensive, that if the king of Lu continued to be Science, or School of Adults," chiefly intended for the directed by the wisdom and sound policy of Confucius, information of princes and magistrates, recommending he would soon become by far too powerful, sent him the duties of self-government, and uniform obedience and his nobility a present of the most beautiful young to the laws of right reason. 2. The Chong-yong, or women, trained up from their infancy in all the arts of "Immutable Medium," in which he shews its imporseduction, who were but too successful in plunging the tance in the government of the passions by a variety of whole court into voluptuousness and dissipation. This examples, and points out the method of arriving at perdemolished, in a short time, the whole of that beautiful fection in virtue. 3. Lung-yu, or moral and sententions fabric which had been erected by Confucius. Finding discourses, which exhibit a lively picture of the opinions, it a hopeless attempt to stem the universal torrent of conduct, and maxims of Confucius and his followers. corruption and depravity, he resolved to exert his ta- 4. Meng-tsi, the book of Mencius, which derived its lents in some distant kingdom, in the philanthropic name from one of that great philosopher's disciples. cause of moral reformation, in hopes of better success. These are all deservedly esteemed by the Chinese, beBut he had the mortification to discover, that vice was ing held next in importance to the five volumes. 5. The everywhere triumphant, while virtue, that darling of Hyau-king, or dissertation on the duty and respect his soul, was compelled to hide her head. This in- which children owe their parents; and, 6. The Syanduced him to adopt the more humble, although hyo, or science for children, being a judicious collection not the less interesting employment of a teacher of of moral sentences from ancient and modern writers. youth, in which he made great and rapid progress. About 600 of his scholars were sent into different parts of the empire, to carry on his favourite work of moral reformation. Among his disciples, 72 were remarkably distinguished above the rest for their mental acquisitions, and 10 others were deemed superior, even to these, as having a thorough comprehension of their master's whole system. These were divided by him into four classes: the first being destined to the study of the moral virtues; the second to the arts of logic and public speaking; the third class studied jurisprudence and the duties of the civil magistrate; and public speaking, or the delivery of popular discourses on moral topics. Indefatigable, however, as his labours were, the task was too mighty to be accomplished by human exertions. During his last illness, he declared to his pupils, that the grief of his mind occasioned by the profligacy of human nature was become insupportable; and with a melancholy voice, he exclaimed "Immense VOL. VI. Part II.

If a fair and impartial estimate of the religion of Confucius be made, it cannot be viewed in any other light than as uncorrupted deism, although he has sometimes been accused of befriending and secretly propagating atheistical sentiments; but such an accusation is as cruel as it is unjust, since the purity of his moral precepts, and the acknowledged rectitude of his whole deportment, are utterly incompatible with such a supposition. He considered the Tyen or Deity as the purest and most perfect essence, principle and source of all things in the boundless universe; who is absolutely independent, omnipotent, the governor and guardian of every thing; possessed of infinite wisdom which nothing can deceive; holy, without partiality, of unlimited goodness and justice. We are at a loss to form any adequate opinion of his sentiments relative to the soul of man and the doctrine of futurity, having no well authenticated data, on which to proceed. His morality is in many instances superior to that of Greece and Rome, 3 R

and

Confucius, and yields to none upon earth, except to that of divine fore, as made them speak it very differently; so that Confusion.
Confusion. revelation. The religion of Confucius, notwithstand by the various inflexions, terminations, and pronun.

ing the estimation in which he is held, is adopted as a ciations of divers dialects, they could no more under
model by none of his countrymen, the literati except- stand one another, than they who understand Latin
ed. Their prevailing system is a medley of pagan can understand those who speak French, Italian, or
idolatry and the fabulous superstition of the Indians, Spanish, though all these languages arise out of it.
introduced into China by Fo, in the first century of the This opinion is adopted by Casaubon, and by Bishop
Christian era.

Patrick in bis Cominentary in loc. and is certainly much
CONFUSION, in a general sense, is onposed to ore more probable than either of the former. And Mr
der, in a pertubation whereof confusion consists : e. gr. Shuckford maintains, that the confusion arose from
when things prior in nature do not precede, or posterior small beginnings, by the invention of new words in ei-
do not follow, &c.

ther of the three families of Shem, Ham, and Japhet, In a logical sense, confusion is opposed to distinctness which might contribute to separate them from one anoor perspicuity: and may happen either in words, as ther: and that in each family new differences of speech when miscontrived or misapplied; or in ideas, as when might gradually arise, so that each of these families the idea of any thing presents sometbing along with it, went on to divide and subdivide among themselves. which does not properly belong to that thing. See Others, again, as Mr Jos. Mede and Dr Wotton, &c. IDEA and NOTION.

not satisfied with either of the foregoing methods of In a physical sense, confusion is a sort of union or accounting for the diversity of languages among manmixture by mere contiguity. Such is that between kind, have recourse to an extraordinary interposition fluids of contrary nature, as oil and vinegar, &c. of divine power, by which new languages were framed

CONFusion, in Scots Law, is a metliod of suspending and communicated to different families by a supernaand extinguishing obligations. For the illustration of tural infusion or inspiration ; which languages bave been this, ste Law Index.

the roots and originals from which the several dialects Confusion of Tongues, in the history of mankind, is that are, or bave been, or will be spoken, as long as a memorable event, which happened in the one hundred this earth shall last, have arisen, and to which they and first year according to the Hebrew chronology, may with ease be reduced. As to the number of lanand the four hundred and first year by the Samaritan, guages thus introduced, many opinions bave been after the flood, at the overthrow of Babel; and which adopted. If there were no more than there were nawas providentially brought about in order to facilitate tions or heads of nations, then the number would be the dispersion of mankind and the population of the seven for Japhet, four for Ham, and five fos Sbem; earth. Until this period there had been one common but if there were as many as there were families, which language, which formed a bond of union that prevented is the more probable opinion, their number cannot be the separation of mankind into distinct nations; and certainly assigned. However, the Hebrews fa ncy they some have supposed, that the tower of Babel was erect- were 70, because the descendants from the sons of ed as a kind of fortress, by which the people intended Noah, enumerated Genesis x. were just so many. Alto defend themselves against that separation which lowing, then, the languages of the chief families to Noah had projected.

have been fundamentally different from each other, the There has been a considerable difference of opinion sub-languages and dialects within each branch would as to the nature of tbis confusion, and the manner in probably have had a mutual affinity, greater or less as which it was effected. Some learned men, prepossessed they settled nearer or farther from each other. But with the notion that all the dillerent idioms now in the whichsoever of these hypotheses is adopted, the priworld did at first arise from one original language to mary object of the confusion at Babel was the separawhich they may be reduced, and that the variety tion and dispersion of mankind. among them is no more than must naturally have hap- Dr Bryant, in the third volume of his Analysis of pened in a long course of time by the mere separation Ancient Mythology, has advanced a singular hypotheof the builders of Babel, have maintained, that there sis, both with respect to the confusion of tongues and were no new languages formed at the confusion; but, the dispersion. He supposes that the confusion of lanthat this event was accomplished by creating a misun- guage was local and partial, and limited to Babel only. derstanding and variance among the builders, without By yarnba, Gen. xi. 1. and 8. which our translators any immediate influence on their languages. But this render the whole earth, be understands every region ; opinion, advanced by Le Clerc, &c. seems to be di- and by the same words in ver. 9. the whole region or rectly contrary to the obvious meaning of the word province. This confusion was occasioned, as he sop770w, shapha, “lip,” used by the sacred historian. poses, by a labial failure ; so that the people could not Others have imagined, that this was brought about by articulate. Thus their speech was confounded, but not a temporary confusion of their speech, or rather of their altered ; for as soon as they separated, they recovered apprehensions, causing them, whilst they continued to their true tenor of pronunciation, and the language of gether and spoke the same language, to understand the the earth continued for some ages nearly the same. words differently. Scaliger is of this opinion. Others, The interviews between the Hebrews and other naagain, account for this event by the privation of all tions recorded in Scripture, were conducted without language, and by supposing that mankind were under a an interpreter ; and be farther observes, that the varinecessity of associating together, and of imposing new ous languages which subsist at this day retain sufficient names on things by common consent. Another opi- relation to show, that they were once dialects from the nion ascribes the confusion to such an indistinct remem- same matrix, and that their variety was the effect of brance of the original language which they spoke be time. See DISPERSION. 3

CONFUTATION,

CONFUTATION, in Rhetoric, &c. a part of an ing any degree of cold whatever; and it is only within Congelaoration, wherein the orator seconds his own arguments a few years that its congelation by artificial means was Congela and strengthens his cause, by refelling and destroying known, and still more lately that some climates were the opposite arguments of the antagonist. This is done found to be so severe as to congeal this fluid by the cold by denying what is apparently false, by detecting some of the atmosphere. flaw in the reasoning of the adverse party, by granting their argument, and showing its invalidity, or retorting it upon the adversary.

tion

4

Congela. commencement of the congelation might be perceived unaccountable ; for, in the first place, the natural cold Congelation. when the temperature of the air was as high as + 2. was scarcely sufficient, along with that of the artificial

The results of all his experiments were, that with the mixture, which produces 32° more, to have congealed above-mentioned frigorific mixtures, and once with the quicksilver ; which yet appears to have been very rectified spirits and snow, when the natural cold was at effectually done, by the length of time it continued 28°, he congealed the quicksilver, and discovered that solid. 2. It is not easy to account for the length of it is a real metal which melts with a very small de- time required for congealing the quicksilver in this exgree of heat. Not perceiving, however, the necessary periment, since other frigorific mixtures begin to act

, consequence of its great contraction in freezing, he, in almost immediately; and, 3. There was not at last this work, as well as in the former, confounded its even the appearance of action, which consists in a sopoint of congelation with that of its greatest contrac- lution of the snow, and not in its freezing into a mass. tion in freezing, and thus marked the former a great “ The whole experiment (says Dr Blagden*) remains * Phi. deal too low; though the point of congelation was very involved in such obscurity, that some persons have sup- Trans uncertain according to him, various difficulties having posed the quicksilver itself was not frozen, but only occurred to his attempts of finding the greatest point covered over with ice; to which opinion, however, of contraction while freezing.

there are great objections. It is worthy of remark, The experiments of M. Braun were not repeated that Gottingen, though situated in the same latitude as Of Mr Blu

by any person till the year 1774, when Mr John Fre- London, and enjoying a temperate climate in general, menbach.

deric Blumenbach, then a student of physic at Got- becomes subject at times to a great severity of cold.
tingen, performed them to more advantage than it ap- This of 11th of January 1774 is one instance: I find
pears M. Braun bad ever done. He was encouraged others there where the thermometer sunk to -12°,
to make the attempt by the excessive cold of the win- -16°,or-19°; and at Cattlenburg, a small town about
ter that year. “ I put (says he), at five in the even- two German miles distant, to -30°. By watching such
ing of January 11th, three drachms of quicksilver into extraordinary occasions, experiments on the freezing
a small sugar-glass, and covered it with a mixture of of quicksilver might easily be performed in many
snow and Egyptian sal-ammoniac. This mixture was places, where the possibility of them is at present lit-
put loose into the glass, so that the quicksilver lay per- tle suspected. The cold observed at Glasgow in 1780
fectly free, being only covered with it as by pieces would bave been fully sufficient for that purpose."
of ice; the whole, together with the glass, weighed In consequence of the publication of M. Braun's
somewhat above an ounce. It was hung out at a Experiments, the Royal Society desired their late se-
window in such a position as to expose it freely to cretary Dr Maty to make the necessary application to
the north-west; and two dracbms more of sal-ammo- the Hudson's Bay Company, in order to repeat the
niac mixed with the snow on which it stood. The experiment in that country. Mr Hutchins, who was
snow and sal-ammoniac, in the open air, soon froze tben at London, and going out with a commission as
into a mass like ice; no sensible change, bowever, ap- governor of Albany fort, offered to undertake the ex-
peared in the quicksilver that evening ; but at one in periments, and executed them very completely, freezing
the morning it was found frozen solid. It had divided quicksilver twice in the mouths of January and Fe-
in:o two large and four smaller pieces; one of the bruary 1775. The account of bis success was read
former was hemispherical, the other cylindrical, each before the Royal Society at the commencement of the
seemingly rather above a drachm in weight; the four severest winter that had been known for many years in
small bits might amount to half a scruple. They were Europe; and at this time the experiment was repeated
all with their flat side frozen bard to the glass, and no- by two gentlemen of different countries. One was
where immediately touched by the mixture; their co- Dr Lambert Bicker, secretary to the Batavian society
lour was a dull pale white with a bluish cast, like zinc, at Rotterdam; who, on the 28th of January 1776, at
very different from the natural appearance of quicksil- eight in the moruing, made an experiment to try how
ver. Next morning, about eleven o'clock, I found that low he could bring the thermometer by artificial cold,
the larger hemisphere began to melt, perhaps because the temperature of the atmospliere being then +2°:
it was most exposed to the air, and not so near as the He could not however, bring it lower than -94°, at
others to the sal-ammoniac mixture which lay be- which point it stood immoveable; and on breaking
neath. In this state it resembled an amalgam, sinking the thermometer, part of the quicksilver was found to
on that side to which the glass was inclined: but with- bave lost its fluidity, and was tbickened to the icon-
out quitting the surface of the glass, to which it was sistence of an amalgam. It fell out of the tube in
yet firmly congealed; the five other pieces bad not little bits, which bore to be flattened by pressure, with.
yet undergone any alteration, but remained frozen hard. out running into globules like the inner fluid part.
Toward eight o'clock the cylindrical piece began to The experiment was repeated next day, when the
soften in the same manner, and the other four soon thermometer stood at +8°, but the mercury would not
followed. About eight they fell from the surface of then descend below —80°; and as the thermometer
the glass, and divided into many fluid shining globules, was not broken, it could not be known whether the
wbich were soon lost in the interstices of the frozen mercury bad congealed or not. All that could be ia.
mixture, and reunited in part at the bottom, being ferred from these experiments therefore was, that the
now exactly like common quicksilver.” At the time congealing point of mercury was not below -94° of
this experiment was made, the thermometer stood at Fahrenheit's thermometer. The other who attempt-
-10° in the open air.

ed the congelation of this fluid was the late Dr AnThe circumstances attending this experiment are still thony Fothergill; but it could not be determined

whether

a

a

t1oo.

5

a

Congela- whether he succeeded or not. An account of bis ex- sensibly below it. The diameter of the bulb of the Congela-
tion. periments is inserted in the Pbilosophical Transactions, thermometer was rather less than a quarter of an inch,
vol. Ixvi.

that of the swelled part of the cylinder two-thirds ;
No other attempts were made to congeal quicksilver and as it was easy to keep the thermometer constantly
until the year 1781, when Mr Hutchins resumed the in the middle of the cylinder, the thickness of quick-
subject with great success, insomuch that from his ex- silver betwixt it and the glass conld never be much less
periments the freezing point of mercury is now almost than the sixth part of an inch. The bulb of the ther-
as well settled as that of water. Preceding philoso- mometer was purposely made as small as it conveniently
phers, indeed, had not been altogether inattentive to could, in order to leave a suflicient space between it and
this subject. Professor Braun himself had taken great the cylinder, without making the swelled part larger
pains to investigate it; but for want of paying the re- than necessary, which would have caused more difficulty
quisite attention to the difference betwixt the contrac- in freezing the mercury in it.
tion of the fluid mercury by cold, and that of the The first experiment with this apparatus was made
congealing metal by freezing, he could determine no- on the 15th of December 1781 ; the thermometer had
thing certain concerning it. Others declared it as stood the evening before at -18°. A bottle of spiri-
their opinion, that nothing certain could be determi- tus nitri fortis was put on the bouse-top, in order to
ned by merely freezing mercury in a thermometer cool it to the same temperature.

The thermome.
filled with that fluid. Mr Cavendish and Dr Black ters made use of had been hung up in the open air for

first suggested the proper method of obviating the dif- three weeks to compare their scales. On the morn-
De Black's ficulties on this subject. Dr Black, in a letter to Mring of the experiment they were about 23° below
directions Hutchins, dated October 5. 1779, gave the following 0.-In making it, the thermometer of the appa-
for making directions for making the experiment with accuracy: ratus was suspended in the bulb of the cylinder by
the experi- « Provide a few wide and short tubes of thin glass,
ment.

means of some red worsted wound about the upper
sealed at one end and open at the other : the wideness part of its stem, to a sufficient thickness to fill the up-
of these tubes may be from half to three quarters of per part of its orifice; and a space of near half an
an inch, and the length of them about three inches. inch was left empty between the quicksilver and worst-
Put an inch or an inch and a half depth of mercury ed.
into one of these tubes, and plunging the bulb of the The apparatus was placed in the open air, on the top
thermometer into the mercury, set the tube with the of the fort, with only a few deer skins sewed together
mercury and the thermometer in it into a freezing mix- for a shelter; the snow lay 18 inches deep on the
ture, which should be made for this purpose in a com- works, and the apparatus was stuck into the snow, in
mon tumbler or water glass : and, N. B. in making a order to bring it the sooner to the temperature of the
freezing mixture with snow and nitric acid, the quan- air. The instruments were afterwards placed in three
tity of the acid should never be so great as to dissolve fresh freezing mixtures, in hopes of being able by their
the whole of the snow, and only enough to reduce means to produce a greater degree of cold, but with-
it to the consistence of panada. When the mer- out effect; nor was any greater cold produced by add-
cury in the wide tube is thus set in the freezing ing more nitric acid. The mercury, however, was very
mixture, it must be stirred gently and frequently with completely frozen, that in the thermometer descending
the bulb of the thermometer; and if the cold be suf. to 448o. On plunging the mercury into the freezing
ficiently strong, it will congeal by becoming thick mixture, it descended in less than one minute to 40°
like an amalgam. As soon as this is observed, the below o.
thermometer should be examined without lifting it out The second experiment was made the day follow-
of the congealing mercury; and I have no doubt that ing; and the same quantity of quicksilver employed
in every experiment thus made, with the same mer- that had been used in the former. As too small a
cury, the instrument will always point to the same quantity of the freezing mixture, however, had been

degree, provided it bas been made and graduated with originally made, it was necessary to add more during 6 accuracy.

the operation of congelation ; by which means the Apparatas The apparatus recommended by Mr Cavendish, and spirit of nitre, in pouring it upon the snow, sometimes

which Mr Hutchins made use of, consisted of a small touched the bulb of the thermometer, and instantly mended by mercurial thermometer, the bulb of which reaches raised it much higher; oor did the mercury ever de. dish. about 2 inches below the scale, and was inclosed in scend below 206°, which was not balf as far as it had

a glass cylinder swelled at the bottom into a ball, which done the day before, though the temperature of the
when used was filled with quicksilver, so that the bulb atmosphere had been this day at -34° before tbe
of the thermometer was entirely covered with it. If commencement of the operation. That in the appa-
this cylinder be immersed in a freezing mixture till ratus, bowever, sunk to -95. The apparatus was
great part of the quicksilver in it is frozen, it is evi- taken out of the mixture for half a minute, in order
dent that the degree shown at that time by the inclo- to examine whether the mercury was perfectly congeal.
sed thermometer is the precise point at which mercury ed or not, and during that time, it showed no sign of
freezes; for as in this case the ball of the thermome- liquefaction.
ter must be surrounded for some time with quicksilver, . The third experiment was made the same day, and
part of which is actually frozen, it seems impossible with the freezing mixture used in the last. By it tlie
that the thermometer should be sensibly above that point of congelation was determined to be not below
point; and while any of the quicksilver in the cylin- 40°.
der remains fluid, it is impossible that it should sink The fourth experiment was made January 7th 1782;

and

becom.

a

a