79 verni a н I China. making small gashes in the body, and then tearing off derness and lenity, being accounted innocent until a o the skin like thongs. It is never applied but for their guilt be clearly proved ; and even then, liberty some great crime, such as treason, or where the crimi- excepted, they are scarce allowed to want for any thing. nal's guilt has been clearly proved, and it is necessary A jailor is punished who behaves rigorously towards to make him discover bis accomplices. his prisoners ; and the judges must likewise answer at M. Gro Notwithstanding these dreadful punishments, M. their peril for any additions to the severity of the law; sier's gene- Grosier is at great pains to prove that the laws of the deposition being the slightest punishment inflicted opral view of Chinese, with regard to criminal matters, are extreme on them. laws. ly mild. • One law (says he) will no doubt appear Substitution is sometimes allowed by the laws of exceedingly severe and rigorous; it inflicts the punish- China ; so that the near relation of a guilty perment of death on those who use pearls. Those who son may put himself in the criminal's place, proread the bistory of China will be apt to fall into cer- vided however, that the chastisement be slight, and tain mistakes respecting the penal laws of that na- the accused his ancient friend, The sons, grandtion. Some of its sovereigns have indulged them- sons, wife, and brothers of a banished Chinese, are alselves in gratifying sanguinary caprices which were lowed to follow him into exile ; and the relations of all not authorized by the laws, and which have often been persons are permitted to visit them in prisons, and to confounded with them; but these princes are even yet give them every assistance in their power; to do which ranked among the number of tyrants, and their names good offices they are even encouraged, instead of being are still abhorred and detested throughout the whole prevented. empire. The Chinese, in their criminal procedure, Every city in China is divided into different quar- or et have a great advantage over all other nations: it is ters, each of which is subjected to the inspection of tiesa their almost impossible that an innocent man should ever be- a certain officer, who is answerable for whatever passes come a victim to a false accusation : in such cases the in the places under bis jurisdiction. Fathers of faaccuser and witnesses are exposed to too much danger. milies, as we have already observed, are answerable for The slowness of the process, and the numberless re- the conduct of their children and domestics. Neighvisions it undergoes, are another safeguard for the ac-, bours are even obliged to answer for one another, cused. In short, no sentence of death is ever carried and are bound to give every help and assistance in cases into execution until it has been approved and con- of robbery, fire, or any accident, especially in the firmed by the emperor. A fair copy of the whole night-time. All the cities are furnished with gates, process is laid before him ; a number of other copies which are barricaded on the commencement of night. are also made out, both in the Chinese and Tartar Centinels are also posted at certain distances throughlanguages, which the emperor submits to the exami- out the streets, who stop all who walk in the night, nation of a like number of doctors, either Tartars or and a number of horsemen go round the ramparts for Chinese. When the crime is of great enormity, and the same purpose; so that it is almost impossible to eclearly proved, the emperor writes with his own hand lude their vigilance by favour of the darkness. A strict at the bottom of the sentence, “ When you receive watch is also kept during the day-time; and all this order, let it be executed without delay." In those who give any suspicion by their looks, accent, or cases where the crime, though punishable by death behaviour, are immediately carried before a mandarin, according to law, is ranked only in the ordinary and sometimes even detained until the pleasure of the class, the emperor writes at the bottom of the sen- governor be known. tence, “ Let the criminal be detained in prison, and Private quarrels do not often happen in China, and executed in autumn ;" that being the season in it is rare that they are attended with a fatal issue. . which they are generally executed, and all on the same The champions sometimes decide the quarrel with 80 day. their fists, but most frequently refer the case to a manCases in The emperor of China never signs an order for the darin, who very often orders them both a sound drubwhich execution of a criminal till he has prepared himself by bing. None but military people are permitted to crimes may fasting. Like other monarchs he has the power of be pardon wear arms in public; and this privilege is extended ed. giving pardons; but in this respect is much more li- even to them only during the time of war, or when mited than any other. The only cases in which the they accompany a mandarin, mount guard, or attend Chinese monarch can remit the punishment inflicted a review. Prostitutes are not allowed to remain within by law are, s. To the son of a widow who has not the walls of a city, or to keep a house of their own married again; 2. To the heir of an ancient family; even in the suburbs. They may, however, lodge in 3. The descendants of great men or citizens who have the house of another ; but that other is accountable deserved well of their country; and, 4. lastly, The sons for every disturbance which may happen on their acor grandsons of a mandarin, who has become illustri- count. ous, and distinguished himself by faithfully dischar- In all the Chinese cities, and even in some of their ging the duties of bis office. Neither a child, nor a ordinary towns, there is an office where money may be of a man of very advanced age, can be cited before a tri- borrowed upon pledges at the common rate of the bunal. The son of a very aged father and mother is country; which, however, is no less than 30 per cent. pardoned, if private property or the public peace be Every pledge is marked with a number when left at not hurt by giving him a pardon; and if the sons of the office, and must be produced when demanded ; such a father and mother be all guilty, or accomplices but it becomes the property of the office if left there a in the same crime, the youngest is pardoned in order a single day longer than the term agreed upon for the to comfort bis parents. payment of the money. The whole transaction In China the accused are always treated with ten- remains an inviolable secret ; not even the name of a Corr China of the person who leaves the pledge being inquired after. 83 This mode of procuring a supply of money for the exigencies of the moment, has been long known in Britain, and the people who thus lend money on pledges under the sanction of government, have a most exorbitant interest, as well as in China, but we are sorry to add, that it is by no means conducted with such profound secrecy. The person's name and surname who offers a pledge must be inserted in the pawn-broker's books, who is thus enabled to make the transaction as public as he pleases. Institutions of this nature are no doubt of considerable utility to the modest poor during a period of embarrassment; but the monstrous evils to which they have given rise are more than sufficient to counterbalance their advantages. We should deem an open avowal of poverty and want to be infinitely preferable to an application to such a sink of corruption and extortion, assured that genuine distress will never want a friend among the sons of benevolence or philanthropy. Of the Chi- Great attention is paid by the administration of nese roads. China to the conveniency of travellers. The roads are generally very broad, all of them paved in the southern provinces, and some in the northern; but neither horses nor carriages are allowed to pass along these. In many places valleys have been filled up, and rocks and mountains cut through, for the purpose of making commodious highways, and to preserve them as nearly as possible on a level. They are generally bordered with very lofty trees, and in some places with walls eight or ten feet high, to prevent travellers from going into the fields; but openings are left in proper places, which give a passage into cross roads that lead to different villages. Covered seats are erected on all the great roads, where travellers may shelter themselves from the inclemency of the weather; temples and pagods are also frequent, into which travellers are admitted without scruple in the day-time, but often meet with a refusal in the night. In these the mandarins only have a right to rest themselves as long as they think proper. There is, however, no want of inns on the great roads, or even the cross ones in China; but they are ill supplied with provisions; and those who frequent them are even obliged to carry beds along with them to sleep on, or else take up with a plain mat. Towers are erected on all the roads of this great empire, with watch-boxes on the top, with flag-staffs, for the convenience of signals in case of any alarm. These towers are square, and generally constructed of brick, but seldom exceed twelve feet in height. They are built, however, in sight of one another, and are guarded by soldiers, who run with great speed from one to another, carrying letters which concern the emperor. Intelligence of any remarkable event is also conveyed by signals; and thus the court is informed with surprising quickness of any important matter. Those which are built on any of the roads conducting to court, are furnished with battlements, and have also very large bells of cast iron. According to law these towers should be only five lys, about half a French league, distant from one another. China. $4 There is no public post-office in China, though se- Method of veral private ones have been established; but the cou- conveyriers and officers charged with dispatches for the em-ance. pire have only a right to make use of them. This inconvenience, however, excepted, travellers find conveyance very easy from one part of China to another. Great numbers of porters are employed in every city, all of whom are associated under the conduct of a chief, who regulates all their engagements, fixes the price of their labour, receives their hire, and is responsible for every thing they carry. When porters are wanted, he furnishes as many as may be necessary, and gives the same number of tickets to the traveller; who returns one to each porter when they have conveyed their loads to an appointed place. These tickets are carried back to the chief, who immediately pays them from the money he received in advance. On all the great roads in China there are several offices of this kind, which have a settled correspondence with others; the travellers therefore have only to carry to one of these offices a list of such things as they wish to have transported this is immediately written down in a book; and though there should be occasion for two, three, or four hundred porters, they are instantly furnished. Every thing is weighed before the eyes of their chief, and the hire is fivepence per hundred weight for one day's carriage. An exact register of every thing is kept at the office; the traveller pays the money in advance, after which he has no occasion to give himself any farther trouble; on his arrival at the city he designs, his baggage is found at the corresponding office, and every thing is delivered to him with the most scrupulous exactness. $5 Custom The customhouses are here regulated by the general police of the country; and according to M. Gro- houses. sier's account, these customhouse officers are the most civil in the world. They have no concern with any class of people but the merchants, whom they take care not to distress by any rigorous exactions; neither, though they have authority to do so, do they stop travellers till their baggage is examined, nor do they ever require the smallest fee from them. Duties are paid either by the piece or by the load; and in the former case credit is given to the merchant's book without asking any questions. A mandarin is appointed by the viceroy of each province to inspect the customhouses of the whole district; and the mandarins have also the care of the post-offices. 86 In former times the only money used in China was Money of made of small shells, but now both silver and copper the empirecoin are met with. The latter consists of round pieces about nine-tenths of an inch (A) in diameter, with a small square hole in the middle, inscribed with two Chinese words on one side, and two Tartar ones on the other. The silver pieces are valued only by their weight. For the convenience of commerce the metal is therefore cast into plates of different sizes: and (A) The Chinese foot is longer by one hundredth part than the French, and the inch is divided into ten parts. sia. commerce. China and for want of small coin, a Chinese always carries foot ; the larger and more magnificent their houses are, Chin about him his scales, weights, and a pair of scissars to so much the more confined and wretched must those of cut the metal. This operation is performed by put the poor be ; and the more their tables are covered ting the silver between the scissars, and then knocking with a variety of dishes, the more must the number of them against a stone till the pieces drop off. In gi- those increase who are reduced to the necessity of feedving of change, however, people have no right to va- ing upon plain rice. Men, united by society in a large a lue silver by the numerical value of copper, this be- and populous kingdom, can employ their industry, taing entirely regulated by the intrinsic value of the me- lents, and economy, to no better purpose than to protals. Thus, an ounce of silver will sometimes be vide necessaries for all, and procure convenience for worth 1000 copper pieces, and sometimes only 800 ; some." SS and thus the copper money of China may frequently The only commerce considered by the Chinese as flistory he sold for more than it would pass for in commerce. advantageous to their empire, is that with Russia and the trad with R The emperor would lose much by this recoinage, were Tartary; by which they are supplied with those furs he not the sole proprietor of all the copper mines in so necessary in the northern provinces. The disputes China. It is, however, expressly forbidden to employ concerning the limits of the respective empires of copper coin in any manufacture where it might be Russia and China seem to have paved the way to this employed as plain copper, and it is also forbidden to These disputes were settled by treaty on be sold for the purpose of melting : but if the price of the 27th of August 1689, under the reign of Ivan the metal bas not fallen, the infraction of this law is and Peter Alexiowitz. The chief of the embassy on not very severely punished. On the other hand, if the part of Russia was Golovin governor of Siberia ; the value of unwrought copper exceeds that of the coin, and two Jesuits were deputed on the part of the ema quantity of the latter is issued out to restore the equi- peror of China ; and the conferences were held in Lalibrium. tin, with a German in the Russian ambassador's train, To keep up a constant circulation of all the coin in who was acquainted with that language. By this treathe empire, the Chinese government are attentive to ty the Russians obtained a regular and permanent trade preserve an equilibrium between the proportional value with China, which they bad long desired; but in reof the copper and silver ; that is, to regulate the intrinsic turn they yielded up a large territory, besides the navalue of each in such a manner that the possessor of vigation of the river Amour. The first intercourse silver may not be afraid to exchange it for copper, had taken place in the beginning of the 17th centu. nor the possessor of copper for silver. The method ry; at which time a small quantity of Chinese mere used for this purpose is, wben silver becomes scarce, to chandise was procured by some Russian merchants make all the payments for some time in silver; but if from the Kalmuck Tartars. The rapid and profitable copper, to make them all for some time in that metal sale of these commodities encouraged certain Siberian 87 only. waycodes to attempt a direct and open communication Of the Chi The commerce of China is under the inspection of with China. For this purpose several deputations were the tribunal of finances ; but on this subject the Chi- sent to the emperor; and though they failed of obtainrese entertain an opinion quite different from that of ing the grant of a regular commerce, their attempts the Europeans. Commerce, according to them, is were attended with some consequences of importance. only useful as far as it eases the people of their super. Thus the Russian merchants were tempted to send fluities, and procures them necessaries. For this rea- traders occasionally to Peking ; by which means a son they consider even that which is carried on at faint connexion was preserved with that metropolis. Canton as prejudicial to the interest of the empire. This commerce, however, was at last interrupted by They take from us (say the Chinese) our silks, teas, the commencement of hostilities on the river Amour; and porcelain : the price of these articles is raised but after the conclusion of the treaty in 168, was rethroughout the provinces : such a trade therefore can- sumed with uncommon alacrity on the part of the Rusnot be beneficial. The money brought us by Euro- sians: and the advantages thence arising were found peans, and the high-priced baubles that accompany it, to be so considerable, that a design of enlarging it was are mere superfluities to such a state as ours. We formed by Peter the Great. Isbrand Ides, a native of have no occasion for more bullion than what may be the duchy of Holstein, then in the Russian service, necessary to answer the exigencies of government, and was therefore despatched to Peking in 1692; by whose to supply the relative wants of individuals. It was means the liberty of trade, before confined to indivi. said by Kouan-tse, two thousand years ago, That the duals, was now extended to caravans. In the mean money introduced does not enrich a kingdom in any time, private merchants continued to trade as before, other way than as it is introduced by commerce. No not only with the Chinese, but also at the head quarcommerce can be advantageous long, but that which ters of the Mogul Tartars. The camp of these roconsists in a mutual exchange of things necessary or ving Tartars, which was generally stationed near the useful. That trade, whether carried on by barter or confluence of the Orhon and Toula rivers, between the money, which has for its object the importing of ar- southern frontiers of Siberia and the Mogul desert, ticles that tend to the gratification of pride, luxury, thus became the seat of an annual fair. Complaints, or curiosity, always supposes the existence of luxury: however, were soon made of the disorderly behaviour but luxury, which is an abundance of superfluities of the Russians ; on which the Chinese monarch among certain classes of people, supposes the want of threatened to expel them from bis dominions entirely, necessaries among a great many others. The more and to allow them neither to trade with the Chinese horses the rich put to their carriages, the greater will nor Moguls. This produced another embassy to Pebe the number of those who are obliged to walk on king in 1719, when matters were again adjusted to nesc commerce. a army of 1,800,000 men. Yet upon the supposition China. that each individual is taxed equally, this enormous sum will amount to no more than 4s. a head annually, while the same analogy applied to Britain will make an individual share amount to 31. There is reason, however, to conclude, that the Chinese, in the above estimate of their standing army, have been rather byperbolical, for Lord Macartney, from the information communicated by Van-ta-zin, makes the whole of the expences of government to leave a surplus for the use of the emperor of 14,043,7341. sterling, which we presume would be impossible, were their standing army as enormous as some of the Chinese pretend. Sum total of the revenue, Surplus for the emperor, L. 66,000,000 -51,956,266 L. 14,043,734 Barrow's Travels, The annual expences of government are indeed im- P• 4°7• mense, but they are regulated in such a manner as never to be augmented but in cases of the utmost necessity. It even happens very often that administration makes greater savings every year. When this happens to be the case, the surplus serves to increase the general treasure of the empire, and prevents the necessity of new impositions in time of war, or other public calamities. The greater part of the taxes are paid in kind; those, for instance, who breed silk worms, pay their taxes in silk, the husbandmen in grain, the gardeuers in fruits, &c. This method, at the same time that it is exceedingly convenient for the subject, is no way detrimental to the public interest. There are numbers of people everywhere in the service of government, who are thus furnished with food and clothing; so that the commodities collected as taxes are almost consumed in the provinces where they are levied ; what remains is sold for the behoof of the emperor, and the money deposited in the imperial treasury. The taxes paid in money arise principally from the customs and sale of salt (which belongs entirely to the emperor), from the duties paid by vessels entering any port, and from other imposts on various branches of manufactures. Excepting these, the trader scarcely contributes any thing to the exigencies of the state, and the mechanic nothing at all; the whole burden of taxation thus falling upon the husbandman. This burden is regulated in proportion to the extent and fertility of his lands; and the greatest care has been taken to manage matters so, that he may neither be overcharged in the imposition nor harassed in the levying of the duties. "The registering of lands (says M. Grosier), so often and to no purpose projected in France, has been long practised in this empire, notwithstanding its prodigious extent." 90 China. the satisfaction of both parties. The reconciliation was of no long duration; for the Russians having soon renewed their disorderly behaviour, an order for their expulsion was issued in 1722, and all intercourse between the two nations forbidden. The differences were once more made up in 1727, and a caravan allowed to go to Peking once in three years, provided it consisted of no more than a hundred persons; and that during their stay their expences should not, as formerly, be defrayed by the emperor of China. The Russians at the same time obtained permission to build a church within the precincts of the caravansary; and four priests were allowed to reside at Peking for the celebration of divine service; the same indulgence being granted to some Russian scholars, for the purpose of learning the Chinese language, and qualifying themselves for being interpreters between the two nations. This intercourse continued till the year 1755;, since which time no more caravans have been sent to China. It was first interrupted by a misunderstanding betwixt the two courts; and though that difference was afterwards made up, no caravans have been sent ever since. The empress of Russia, sensible that the monopoly of the fur trade (which was entirely confined to the caravans belonging to the crown, and prohibited to individuals) was prejudicial to commerce, gave it up in favour of her subjects in 1762; and the centre of commerce betwixt the two nations is now at Kiatka. Here the trade is entirely carried on by barter. The Russians are prohibited from exporting their own coin; finding it more advantageous to take goods in exchange than to receive bullion at the Chinese standard. The principal exports from Russia are furs of different kinds; the most valuable of which are those of sea otters, beavers, wolves, foxes, martens, sables, and ermines; the greater part of which are brought from Siberia and the newly discovered islands; but as they cannot supply the demand, there is a necessity for importing foreign furs to Petersburg, which are afterwards sent to Kiatka. Various kinds of cloth are likewise sent to China, as well as hardware, and live cattle, such as horses, camels, &c. The exports from China are raw and manufactured silk, cotton, porcelain, rhubarb, musk, &c. The government of Russia likewise reserves to itself the exclusive privilege of purchasing rhubarb. It is brought to Kiatka by some Bukharian merchants, who have entered into a contract to supply the crown with it in exchange for furs the exportation of the best rhubarb is forbidden under severe penalties, but yet is procured in sufficient quantities, sometimes by clandestinely mixing it with inferior roots, and sometimes by smuggling it directly. Great part of Europe is supplied with rhubarb from revenue. Russia. 89 The revenue of the emperor of China amounts to Emperor's more than 41 millions sterling; and might easily be increased, did the sovereign incline to burden his subjects with new impositions. When Lord Macartney visited this vast empire in the capacity of his Britannic majesty's ambassador, the revenue of the Chinese emperor was not less than 66 millions sterling; but it cannot be supposed that a very large share of this enormous sum is actually expended by the emperor, after deducting the almost incalculable number of salaries which it is destined to pay, together with a standing China. The levying of taxes in China is as simple as the of the nature of the thing will admit of. The duties levied taxes in from towns and villages are carried to cities of the third class; then they are conducted to those of the second; then to those of the first; and at last to the capital. The levying and imposition of taxes is submitted to the tribunal of finances; and matters are so managed, that besides the consumption in each district for. 9 Cerem ants China. for discharging the ordinary expences of government, power to carry his produce to a free and open market. Chi something is left by way of reserve for answering ac- Part of the crop is allowed to be used in distillation; hande. examination of the grand tribunal of finances. This longs to the tribunal of mathematics to determine the revises the whole, and keeps an exact account of precise day. The tribunal of ceremonies announces it what is consumed, and of whatever surplus may be to the emperor by a memorial ; in which every thing 91 left. Of lending requisite to be done by him is mentioned with the most money, Lending money upon interest has been in use in scrupulous exactness. The sovereign then names 12 and defi. China for about 2000 years. It has often been abo- of the most illustrious persons in his court to accompaciencies in Jished, and as often established. The interest, as bas ny him, and to hold the plough after he has performpaying in- been already hinted, is no less than 30 per cent. and ed his part of the ceremony. Among these there are terest. the year is only lunar. A tenth part of this interest is always three princes of the blood, and nine presidents paid monthly : and concerning neglects of payment, of supreme courts; and if any of them are too old and the following laws bave been enacted. “ However infirm to undergo the fatigue, the substitutes must be much the debt may have accumulated by months or authorized by the emperor. The festival is preceded years, the principal and interest shall remain always by a sacrifice, which the emperor offers up to Chang-ti the same. Whoever infringes this law shall receive 40 (the supreme God); after which he and his attendblows of a pan-tsee; or an hundred, if he uses any ar- prepare themselves by three days fasting and contifice to add the principal and interest together.” This tinence. Others are appointed by the emperor, on the law is explained by the following: “Whoever shall evening before the ceremony, to go and prostrate . be convicted before a mandarin of not having paid a themselves at the sepulchre of his ancestors, and to acmonth's interest, shall receive ten blows; twenty for quaint them, that, on the day following, he intends two months, and thirty for three ; and in this manner to celebrate a grand sacrifice. This is offered upon a as far as sixty; that is to say, to the sixth month. The small mount a few furlongs distant from the city, debtor is then obliged to pay principal and interest ; but which, by the indispensable rules of the ceremony, those who obtain payment by using violence and force must be so feet in height. The Chang-ti is invoked are condemned to receive 24 blows. by the emperor, who sacrifices under the title of soveAgricul Many Chinese writers have endeavoured unsuccess- reign pontiff, and prays for an abundant harvest in facure great- fully to show why government should allow such ex- vour of his people. He then descends, accompanied ly encou. orbitant interest to be taken for money; but the most by the three princes and nine presidents who are to raged. satisfactory and rational account seems to be, that the put their hands to the plough along with him; the great interest of money prevents the rich from pur- field set apart for this purpose being at a small distance chasing much land; as landed estates would only em- from the mount. Forty labourer. are selected to yoke barrass and impoverish them, their produce being so the oxen, and to prepare the seed which the emperor much inferior to that of money. The patrimony of a is to sow; and which are of five different kinds, viz. family in China is seldom divided ; and it never hap- wheat, rice, two kinds of millet, and beans. They pens there, as in almost every other country, that are brought to the spot in magnificent boxes, carried wealth and riches are engrossed by one part of the na- hy persons of the most distinguished rank. The empetion, while the other possesses nothing: ror then lays hold of the plough, and turns up several Agriculture is by the Chinese considered as the first furrows; the princes of the blood do the same, and and most honourable of all professions ; so that in this ; then the presidents; after which the emperor throws empire the husbandman enjoys many and great privi- into the furrows the five kinds of seeds already menleges, while the merchant and mechanic are much less tioned : lastly, four pieces of cotton-cloth, proper for esteemed. He is considered as next in dignity to offi- making dresses, are distributed to each of the labourcers of state, from whom indeed they very frequently ers, who assist in yoking the oxen and preparing the originate. The soldier in China cultivates the ground, seeds; and the same presents are made to forty other and even the priests are employed in agriculture, when persons who have only been spectators of the ceretheir convents happen to be endowed with land. From mony. the principle that the emperor is absolute proprietor of “ We must not (says M. Grosier) judge of the Chi-or the the soil, one would imagine that the tenant must hold nese peasants from those of Europe, especially in what sants, his share of it by a very precarious tenure; yet it is relates to the lights acquired by education. Free certain that when any man is dis possessed, his own cul- schools are very numerous in every province of China, pable conduct is the cause. The Chinese are so habi- and even some of the villages are not destitute of this tuated to consider a piece of land as their own, while advantage. The sons of the poor are there received they continue to be punctual in the payment of their as readily as those of the rich ; their duties and their rent, that a Portuguese resident in Macao who at- studies are the same; the attention of the masters is tempted to raise the rent of his tenants, ran the hazard equally divided between them; and from this obscure of losing his life. There are no prodigiously over- source talents often spring, which afterwards make a grown farms in China, no monopolizers of farms, no conspicuous figure on the grand stage of life. No. wholesale dealers in grain, but every man has it in his thing is more common in China than to see the son 92 |