convey instruction as to the work in Crete, with the execution of which Titus had been commissioned. If the hypothesis of Paul's second imprisonment be true, this Epistle and the first to Timothy were written during Paul's journey to Asia Minor and Greece, before his last imprisonment. The Epistle, it is thought, was written from Nicopolis, probably the Epirote town of that name, and not the Macedonian city. (On the question of authenticity see TIMOTHY, EPISTLES TO.)

Ti'tus Fla'vius Sabi'nus Vespasia'nus, commonly called by his prenomen Tirus, Roman emperor (79-81), b. Dec. 30, 40 A. D., a son of Vespasianus and Flavia Domitilla. Vespasianus was of mean extraction, but he had acquired a great fame as a general, and, although Nero disliked him, his son Titus was nevertheless educated with Britannicus, the son of Claudius, with whom he formed an intimate friendship. When, in 66, Vespasianus was sent to the East as commander in the Jewish war, Titus accompanied him, and when, in 69, Vespasianus was declared emperor and returned to Rome, Titus was left ascommander-in-chief, and finished the war by taking and destroying Jerusalem, Sept. 8, 70. As cæsar and co-regent with his father he did not give great promise; on the contrary, the people feared that he would be another Nero. After his accession, however (June 24, 79), he proved a kind and conscientious ruler. The delatores (informers) were branded and banished, and no one was prosecuted for crimen læsæ majestatis. Many splendid public buildings, the Colosseum, the baths, etc., were finished and dedicated with magnificent festivals for the people; but the emperor deserved most praise for the energy he developed in aiding the people under the great calamities which befell them during his reign-the destruction of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiæ by the terrible eruption of Vesuvius; the conflagration in Rome in the following year, by which the Capitol, the library of Augustus, and many of the most magnificent edifices of the city were destroyed; and, finally, the plague. But his reign was very short. He d. Sept. 13, 81, at Reate in the Sabine country, probably poisoned by his younger brother, Domitian, who succeeded him. Titus Livius. See LIVY.

Titusville, cap. of Brevard co., Fla. (see map of Florida, ref. 4-F, for location of county), on R. R. and Indian River. P. not in census of 1880.

Titus'ville, city and R. R. centro, Crawford co., Pa. (see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 2-A, for location of county), in the extreme S. E. corner of the county, originally a part of Oil Creek township. It was incorporated as a city in 1867. Oil Creek-originally so called on account of the petroleum which was occasionally found floating upon its surfaceflows through the S. part of the city from W. to E., affording good water-power. It is regularly laid out upon a plateau which gently slopes to the S., affording natural facilities for sewerage, which have been taken advantage of in the construction of an excellent system of drainage. The principal streets are well built, laid with block pavements, and lighted with gas. The Holly system of waterworks supplies every part of the city with the purest water, and furnishes the fire department with the means of subduing fires so quickly that a serious conflagration has not occurred since the system was inaugurated. The Presbyterian, Baptist, Methodist, Episcopal, Universalist, Irish and German Roman Catholic, M. E. Zion, and German Reformed Church organizations all have well-built houses of worship. The city owns a fine building used for official purposes. The public schools are of a high order. Petroleum was discovered in the eastern confines of the city in 1859, since which time thousands of wells have been bored, from Bradford on the N. to Butler county on the S. Titusville has always been a large refining-point, and can turn out 4000 barrels of refined oil per day. The industries connected with the production and refining of petroleum, such as the manufacture of engines, boilers, oil-well boring and pumping tools, iron tanks, stills, barrels, etc., have largely centred in this city, giving employment to large machineshops, with thousands of skilled mechanics. An oil exchange regulates the buying and selling of crude and refined petroleum. It has good hotel accommodations and one of the best opera-houses in the State. P. in 1870, 8639; in 1880, 9046.

Tityrinæ, or Becards, a small group of birds closely allied to the fly-catchers, and peculiar to South America and the West Indies. They have a short bill, broad at the base and suddenly compressed toward the tip. The gray becard is generally gray, with the head, wings, and tail black; it is found in Guiana.

Tiv'erton, town of England, in Devonshire, at the confluence of the Exe and Laman, has some educational institutions, a fine church, and manufactures of lace which em

Ti'voli [ane. Tibur], town of Italy, province of Rome, 19 miles E. N. E. of the city of Rome, on a plateau formed by a spur of Monte Ripoli, about 900 feet above the sea, and down which the Anio tumbles in its course toward the Tiber. This town, founded at least 500 years before the first stones were laid in old Rome itself, is most interesting, not only for its historical associations, but for the extraordinary beauty of the natural scenery in the midst of which it stands. The celebrated falls of the Anio or Teverone, so praised by the Roman poets, are perhaps even more beautiful now that changes in the bed of the river, brought about by the violence of floods, have compelled the hand of art to lend its aid to nature. The last great work, made necessary by the destructive flood of 1826, was the turning of the Anio into an entirely new channel by cutting two tunnels (885 feet and 980 feet in length, respectively) through the limestone rocks of Monte Catello on the opposite side of the valley. This was effected by the very able Roman engineer Folchi in 1832, and the river now takes a single leap of 320 feet, forming a cascade as grand as it is graceful. The Cascatelle are a series of smaller but most picturesque falls, produced by diverting, for manufacturing purposes, a portion of the water of the main stream of the Anio. On a rock overlooking the cascades stands the beautiful little temple generally called that of the Tiburtine Sibyl, though probably dedicated to Vesta-a circular structure (21 feet in diameter) surrounded by an open portico composed originally of eighteen columns, only ten of which now remain. These columns, of the Corinthian order, the shafts being 18 feet in length and the capitals ornamented with lilies, are formed of travertine covered with stucco a thing not common in ancient architecture. The entablature is very rich, and on the architrave is inscribed "L. Gellio. L." The neighboring oblong Ionic temple, also of travertine, is now converted into a church. The so-called Tempio della Tosse, circular and covered with a dome, is probably a sepulchral monument of the time of the first Christian emperors. Traces of old Roman villas are found everywhere, though few can be identified as belonging to a particular family. The very extensive Villa of Cassius is one of the latter, and the Vatican and other museums have derived some of their choicest treasures from excavations made here. The Villa of Mæcenas has no authority for its name, but its vast size, its ruined Doric temple, and the magnificent view from the terrace make it well worthy a visit. The old castle near the Porta Santa Croce, with its five circular towers, is a very striking object and the most interesting relic of mediaval Tivoli. From the Villa d'Este (1549), from the Villa Braschi, and indeed from very many other points, the views, reaching over the Campagna to the sea, and embracing the Eternal City itself, are altogether beyond description. It is greatly to be regretted that this place, so favored in other respects by nature, should suffer from malaria-a circumstance which alone prevents it from becoming a most favorite summer resort. As it is, though many noble Roman families have superb villas here, yet they seldom occupy them more than a few days at a time. The manufacturing industry of the modern town is, however, very considerable. Important ironworks were established by Lucien Bonaparte among the ruins of the Villa of Maecenas: large paper-factories are also in operation, and an incombustible fabric is here made from asbestos.

The settlement of Tibur by the Siculi is variously fixed between 500 and 700 years before the foundation of Rome. Syphax, king of Numidia, died here 202 B. c. It belonged to the Latin league and played quite a conspicuous part in its history, but in 338 B. c. it was conquered and bereft of a part of its territory. Under the Roman emperors it was very flourishing; Horace, Virgil, Catullus, and Propertius have praised it in their immortal verses. It was here that Queen Zenobia, after her glorious but vain resistance to the arms of Aurelian, lived in luxury and died in peace. The destruction and rebuilding of the city by Totila (sixth century) is a memorable event; the subsequent mediæval history of Tivoli is intimately connected with that of the city of Rome itself, and is filled with violence and disaster. It was for a time the headquarters of Cola di Rienzi. P. 8105. CAROLINE C. MARSH.

Tizza'na, town of Italy, province of Florence, is situated on a beautiful hill about 10 miles S. W. of Pistoia. Its mediæval wall and castle are now in ruins. The wines produced here are among the best in Tuscany. P. 9352.

Tlaxcala, or Tlascala [Mexican, "land of maize"], a state of the Mexican republic, occupying a portion of the central table-land, N. of the Valley of Puebla and E. of the Valley of Mexico. It is the smallest of the Mexican states. Area, 1620 sq. m. Pop. 138,988. Is bounded W.

by Puebla. The territory is mountainous on the N. and W., and the centre of the state is occupied by the celebrated mountain Malinche; the N. valley between Malinche and the Sierra de Puebla is traversed by the Mexico and Vera Cruz R. R., completed in 1872, and from Apizaco in the N. W. a branch diverges S. to the city of Puebla. The soil is somewhat hard, and usually bare of trees, but extremely productive of maize (whence the name), and in some parts produces the maguey or pulque-plant. Hemp has lately been successfully introduced near Apizaco, a town which owes its growth to the railway. There are no towns of great importance, Huamantla, the largest, having less than 10,000 inhabitants, and the city of Tlaxcala, the capital, having less than 5000. Tlaxcala is celebrated in the annals of the Conquest as the seat of a warlike Indian republic, which made a gallant resistance to Cortez under its chief Xicotencatl, and subsequently became his most faithful and efficient ally in the siege of Mexico. The city of Tlaxcala was reported by Cortez to have numbered 20,000 families; doubtless a gross exaggeration, as there are no existing remains to prove such former greatness, though there are preserved in the archives of the Cabildo numerous documents and relics of that period, as well as the banner of Cortez and authentic portraits of the Tlaxcalan senators. The oldest Franciscan convent in Mexico is at Tlaxcala, which was the seat of the first Mexican

bishoprie, now transferred to Puebla. The people are nearly all of Indian blood, are intelligent and industrious, though poor, and have taken a large part in the civil and foreign wars of Mexico. A History of Tlaxcala, written in the sixteenth century by Camargo, a native of the city, was published there in 1870 by the care of the governor, Don Miguel Lira y Ortega, a descendant of the celebrated Magiscatzin, who was at the head of the Tlaxcalan senate at the Conquest. PORTER C. BLISS.

Tlemcen', town of Algeria, province of Oran, is well built and is in a fine plain, sheltered against the scorching S. winds by a chain of lofty mountains, cultivated with great care, and producing olives, figs, grapes, and other

kinds of fruit in abundance. Tlemcen has some manufactures of leather, ironware, carpets, and woollen fabrics, and a considerable trade in wool, ivory, and ostrich-feathers. P. 21,728.

Toad [Ang.-Sax. tade], the English name for various species of Salientia or anurous amphibians, agreeing in having a stumpy body, short legs, as compared with the frogs, and a warty skin. Animals thus distinguished, nevertheless, may differ much in other respects, and severally be related to forms differing in external characters; and indeed the name cannot be definitely applied to a natural group. Under this heading, however, may be considered the typical toads and those immediately related to them. The toad, then, is the representative of a group (Bufoniformia) of families calle 1 Bufonida, Rhinophrynidae, and Batrachophrynidae. This group or superfamily (or, according to Cope, sub-order) Bufoniformia is distinguished by the absence of teeth in the jaws, the development of a sternum which is deficient in a manubrium, the dilation of the diapophysis of the sacrum, and the absence of articulate ribs.

I. In the Bufonida the skin is warty; both a tympanum and cavum tympani are developed; there are well-developed (two) eustachian tubes and parotid glands, and the tongue is free behind. Other less superficial characters have been indicated by Cope; the superior plate of the ethmoid is completely ossified, and usually covered by the frontoparietals, which are mostly completely ossified, or by them and the prefrontals together; there is no pterygoid; the epicoracoids are divergent from the coracoids; the "latter dilated, nearly or quite in contact, each connected with the former on the same side by a cartilaginous arch, of which that on the right (the animal being on its back); overlaps with its convexity the left coracoid, and that of the left coracoid underlaps that on the right." The family is quite rich in species, and very generally distributed; it is represented by many species of Bufo in the northern hemisphere, as well as by some in Asia, Africa, and South America, and by other genera of more restrictel range. At least 10 species of Bufo occur within the limits of the L. S., and these are the only North American representatives of the family. The common toad of the Northern states is Bufo lentiginosus; the common one of Europe, Bufo culgaris, They all live upon insects, and their appetite is almost insatiable. Their skin, on provocation, emits an acrid secretion, which is believed to be poisonous by many people, but erroneously so, although a person of bad constitution with an open wound may suffer from touching it with the wounded part.

II. In the Rhinophrynidae, the skin is also rough, seither tympanum nor cavum tympani are developed; the VOL. VIII-3

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eustachian tubes are rudimentary or absent; there are no parotid glands, and the tongue is free in front (fixed behind); the ethmoid septal walls are ossified to the end of the muzzle, separating the prefrontals, and the superior plate is covered by the fronto-parietals, which are coossified; there is no pterygoid bone; the epicoracoids and coracoids are divergent, and connected by a single narrow cartilage, which is in contact with or slightly separated from that of the opposite side. The family is represented by a single genus, confined to tropical America.

III. In the Batrachophrynidæ the skin is smooth; there is neither tympanum nor cavum tympani; no eustachian tubes; no parotid glands; the tongue is mostly adherent, the middle part only of the hind border being free; the cranial characters have not been indicated; the "arciform epicoracoid cartilages not united, the right being the lower." The family has been proposed for a single genus of two species from Peru. (See also BATRACHIA and FROG.) THEODORE GILL.

Toad-Fish, the name applied to the species of fishes representing the families Batrachida and Maltheida. These two forms belong to entirely distinct groups (orders) of the class, and have really nothing in common except a certain hideousness of aspect other than fishes generally have with each, although they were formerly associated together, even by scientific ichthyologists (e. g. Cuvier).

I. The Batrachida belong to the order Teleocephali, and are characterized by their subcylindrical body, but compressed backward, and gradually diminishing from the head to the tail; the skin is naked or covered with minute scales; the head is more or less quadrate, broad, and depressed, and distinctly differentiated from the body; the opercular bones are mostly invested in the skin, but the operculum emits one or more spines; the mouth is large, nearly horizontal, and mostly transverse; the teeth are mostly conical on the jaws and palate; the branchial apertures are narrow, vertical slits in front of the pectorals; the branchiostegal rays conspicuous externally, and in six pairs; the fins normally developed; the dorsals represented by (1) a small anterior fin, with two or three very short rigid spines, and (2) a long posterior rayed fin; the anal also moderately long; the caudal well developed and mostly free; the pectorals are not pediculated, and have the usual form and flexure, and their rays are branched; the ventrals are jugular, and have two soft rays. There are three gills, and no pseudobranchiæ; the intestinal canal has no pyloric cæca, and an air-bladder is developed. The skeleton has 12 abdominal vertebræ, and from 17 to 27 caudal ones. The family is represented by carnivorous fishes in many tropical and temperate seas, although not very rich in species. They are bottom fishes, living mostly in the mud, and in some instances ensconce themselves in the empty valves of shells. The Batrachi are to be feared on account of their bite, as their teeth and jaws are quite strong, and the Thalassophrynes, on account of the wounds which they can inflict with their opercular spines. The opercular spines of most of the species are solid, but those of Thalassophryne are hollowed, and at their bases are poison-glands. The species are generally of moderate size, but one (the so-called Batrachus gigas), made known by Günther in 1869 (Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. iii. p. 131), from the Seychelles Islands, ranks among the largest of true fishes. Less than 20 species of the family are known, which have been generally distributed under three genera, Batrachus, Thalassophryne, and Parichthys, but the first is a heterogeneous group.

II. The Antennariidæ (or Chironectida) belong to the order Pediculati, and are distinguished by the high compressed or sacklike body; the skin is generally covered with minute spines, but sometimes naked; the head is large and compressed, and not differentiated externally from the trunk; the opercular apparatus is entirely concealed under the integuments; the mouth is cleft laterally, and almost or quite vertically; the teeth are small and conie on the jaws and palate; the branchial apertures are holes in or behind the inferior axils of the pectoral fins; the branchiostegal rays are invisible externally; the fins in part are singularly modified; the dorsals are represented (1) by a slender spine or tentacle on the snout; (2) by two true spines (generally, but not in Chaunax) more or less connected (but mostly very slightly) by membrane, homologous with the first fin of typical fishes; and (3) by an elongated posterior rayed fin; the anal is short, the caudal distinct; the pectorals are pediculate and flexible downward and forward, and capable of assuming the functions of legs; the ventrals are generally present far forward, nearly under the eyes, and composed of several rays, but occasionally wanting. There are, typically at least, three and a half gills, and no pseudobranchia; the stomach is very large, and there are no pylorie appendages; the air-bladder is sometimes present, sometimes absent. The skeleton has a reduced number of