LESSON XX.

IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES.

Remark. Those adjectives which have different words in the comparative and superlative degrees, are called irregular adjec

tives.

best.

latest, or last.

Old,

most.

nearest, or next.

older, or elder, oldest, or eldest.

Obs. Some of the above are frequently adverbs.

90. Adverbs that admit comparison, are compared like

adjectives.

Super.

sooner,

soonest.

earlier,

earliest.

more wisely, most wisely.

One adverb is irregularly compared.

Super.

better,

best.

DEFINITIVE OR SPECIFYING ADJECTIVES.

Explanations.-Definitive or specifying adjectives are called pronominal adjectives or adjective pronouns by many respectable grammarians. We feel no repugnance to the term pronominal. Adjective pronoun seems to be too long a name for common parsing, especially when the word demonstrative or distributive is prefixed to it. We prefer the simple term adjective for all words which belong to nouns; and pronoun for all words used instead of nouns. We do not omit, however, to assign to adjectives and pronouns their distinct and appropriate classes or kinds. We have found from several years experience in teaching English Grammar, that the more nearly definitions comport with their use, the more easily and readily our illustrations are understood by the pupil. If a scholar is taught to consider all words adjectives, that are added to nouns or pronouns to qualify, limit, or define their meaning, and all words pronouns that are used instead of nouns, he meets with no difficulty in comprehending their meaning or

a. Authorities, Dr. Webster, Nutting, and Goold Brown. Lesser is used when it means smaller; as, Lesser Asia.

use.

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But if, after having been taught that a pronoun is used in stead of a noun,' he is directed to call a word, which, his judg. ment tells him, is an adjective,' a 'demonstrative adjective pronoun,' he is at once perplexed and confounded. He cannot conceive why a pronoun' should belong to a noun,' when he has just been taught, that it is used instead of a noun.' He has to encounter this difficulty through his whole course of study. This was our experience in studying grammar; this has been our experience in teaching it. Therefore, those words which are denominated adjective pronouns' by some grammarians, are called adjectives in this system' when they belong to nouns like other adjectives; and pronouns or substitutes, when used instead of nouns. Each will be noticed in the recapitulation under the head of adjective and pronoun.

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91. Definitive or specifying adjectives precisely point out the nouns to which they belong; and show the extent of their signification in a definite or indefinite sense.

92. The principal definitive or specifying adjectives are, this, that, these, those, each, every, either, neither, both, several,* own, some, other, any, one, all, such, same, none or no, and which and what with their compounds, when they belong to nouns.

FORM OF PARSING.

Oldest is an irregular adjective, pos. old, comp. older or elder, super. oldest or eldest, in the superlative degree, and belongs to state. Repeat Rule IV. It is added to state to indicate its age. The word this is a definitive adjective, and belongs to book, according to Rule IV.

This

Examples.-Virginia is the oldest state in the union. book is instructive. Some boys are ingenious. Those scholars are not studious. Neither boy was satisfied. Either girl may go. Each person did his duty. That young lady is a pattern of modesty. Both men were present. All mankind desire happiness. Every man is an accountable being. Several individuals participated in the deliberations. Every heart knows its own sorrows. These culprits have violated their country's laws. Mercury is nearer to the sun than Venus. Herschel is the farthest from the sun.

Questions. What are irregular adjectives? Compare bad? Compare all the irregular adjectives? Like what are adverbs compared? Compare soon? Early? Wisely? Well? What is said respecting definitive or specifying adjec tives? What are all words called that belong to nouns? Which are used instead of nouns? What are those words called in this grammar which some grammarians denominate adjective pronouns? When are they called adjectives? When pronouns? Where will each class be noticed? What is the use of the definitive or specifying adjectives? 91. Will you name the definitive or specifying adjectives? Why is oldest an adjective? Why irregular? Why in the superlative degree? 81. To what does it belong? Why is it added to What kind of adjective is this? 358.

state?

*Several, compounded of sever and all, means three or more, not very many.

LESSON XXI.

VERBS, TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE.

ACTIVE AND NEUTER.

Explanations.-All those verbs are active or transitive, whose action terminates or ends on some object; and that object is in the objective case and is governed by the verb which acts upon it. Nouns and pronouns are the objects of verbs, participles, or prepositions. Active verbs impart action to some object. Neuter verbs limit the action or what is affirmed to the nominative case. The hen sits. William repents. You cannot say the hen sits any thing, nor that William repents any thing. The action of each verb is limited to its nominative case; therefore, sits and repents are both neuter verbs. The variations of the verb be or am are frequently preceded and followed by words referring to the same person or thing; these words are in the same case. Adam was the first man. Adam is in the nominative case. Man, coming after the neuter verb was, a variation of the verb be or am, and meaning the same thing that Adam does, is, also, in the nominative case. If the nominative case precedes the verb, the same case follows the verb. If the objective case precedes the verb, the objective case follows the verb; that is, when both words mean the same thing. Neuter verbs have no object. Active verbs always have an object expressed or understood. When no object is expressed, we can easily supply one in the mind. Ezra loves-Loves what? We may suppose, he loves his parents; he loves work. But we cannot say Ezra walks any thing. Walks has no object, and is, therefore, a neuter verb. Its action is limi

ted to the nominative case. Ellipsis denotes the omission of words, which must be supplied in parsing. The words omitted are said to be understood. The words written or printed are said to be expressed. "It is more strictly correct to divide verbs into transitive and intransitive; and to say that transitive verbs have two voices, active and passive." The division of verbs into active, passive, and neuter, is adopted because it is more concise. Transitive means passing over to; intransitive means not passing over to. We ascribe to active and neuter the meaning of transitive and intransitive.

93. When a verb will act upon any object, or " when we can place me, him, it, or them after it, and the expression will make good sense, it is active; if not, it is neuter."

94. An active or transitive verb expresses an action which ends on some object, or one which passes from an agent to an object; and "governs an objective case, either expressed or understood."

95. A neuter verb expresses existence, or the state of existence, or it expresses an action that is wholly limited to its nominative case.

96. RULE III. Active verbs govern the objective case. (a)

97. RULE VI. Prepositions govern the objective case.

FORM OF PARSING.

Teach is an active verb; acts upon the object boys. Boys is n the objective case and is governed by teach; (Rule III;) it being the object on which the action of the verb teach terminates. To is a preposition and governs soul; soul is in the objective and is governed by to. Rule VI.

Examples.-Men teach boys. Boys train dogs. Dogs pursue cats. Cats catch rats. Rats gnaw cheese. Cheese breeds worms. Worms devour animals. Animals drink water. Water wets land. Land produces flowers. Flowers perfume the air. Air sustains life. Life gives animation to the soul. James set the lamp on the table. The lamp now sits on the stand. Rain descends. Smoke ascends. The roses blossomed. The ship sailed. The prisoner escaped. The boys whispered. See, go, hear, drink, sit, is, was, were, live, meet, digged, lighted, gave, honored, respected, revered, venerated.

Questions. What are those verbs called whose action terminates on some object? By what, is the object governed? What parts of speech are the objects of verbs, participles, or prepositions? What do active verbs do? Neuter? Why are not sits and repents active verbs? What neuter verb has the same case before and after it, when both words mean the same thing? In the sentence, 'Adam was the first man,' which word governs the verb? In what case is man? Why? If the nominative case precedes the verb, when both words refer to the same thing, what case follows it? If the objective case, what case follows the verb? Have neuter verbs any object? Has every active verb an object? If no object is expressed, what can you do? What kind of verb is love? Walks? Why? What term expresses the omission of words? Those that are not omitted? What division of verbs is more correct? Why is the division of verbs into active, passive, and neuter preferable? The meaning of transitive? Intransitive? What meaning do we ascribe to active and neuter? How can you tell whether a verb is active or not? What is an active verb? A neuter verb? Rule III? Rule VI? Why is teach an active verb? Why is boys in the objective case?

LESSON XXII.

TENSE, MODE, AND AUXILIARIES.

Explanations.-Verbs express action at different times. Any thing, which is done now, is supposed to be done at the present time. Any thing which was done yesterday, is supposed to be done in past time. Any thing which may be done hereafter, is supposed to be done in future time. Future time means time to come. The word tense, meaning time, is used to express the performance of action at different times. There are not only different times of expressing action or existence, but different manners of expressing it. Mode is the term used to designate the different manners of expressing action or existence.

98. "Mode is the manner of representing what is expressed by the verb.”

99. Verbs have five modes, the Indicative, the Infinitive, the Potential, the Imperative, and the Subjunctive.

100. The Indicative mode simply affirms or declares a thing, either negatively or affirmatively; or it asks a question.

101. Tense is the distinction of time.

102. The general divisions of time are three,—the present, the past, and the future. Some of the modes are marked by a more distinct variation and by a greater number of tenses.

103. The Indicative mode has "six tenses,—the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First future, and the Second future."

104. The Indicative mode has one Present tense, three past tenses, called the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Pluperfect, and two future tenses, called the First future, and the Second future.

105. "When a verb consists of more than one word, the last is called the principal verb; the others, auxiliaries* or helping verbs.”

106. The tenses of verbs are either simple or compound. The simple tenses can be expressed by one verb. The Present and Imperfect tenses of the Indicative mode are simple tenses. Compound tenses require more than one verb, to express them. The Perfect, Pluperfect, the First and Second future tensesof the Indicative mode, are compound tenses.

107. The short verbs, which are prefixed to a principal verb to express the compound tenses, are called auxiliary or helping verbs. The auxiliaries are the signs of the several tenses.

108. The sign of the Perfect tense is have or has; of the Pluperfect, had; of the First future, shall or will : of the Second future, shall have or will have.

109. The Present tense may be distinguished by placing the word now after it; the Imperfect by placing the word yesterday after it; the Future, by placing the word to-morrow after it.

FORM OF PARSING

Will have commenced is an active verb; Pres. commence, * Auxiliary means helping.