or received. Nominative means leading or governing. Those words in a sentence which are agents or actors, being leading or governing words, are said to be in the nominative case. The possessive case will be explained in another lesson. Objective means having an object. Those words which receive the action, expressed by verbs are called objects, and are said to be in the objective case. Those verbs which act upon an object, or carry the action on to the object, are called active; and have two cases belonging to them, the nominative and the objective. The nominative case governs the verb; the objective case is governed by the verb, or is the object of the verb. Those verbs which limit the action to the subject or nominative case, and have no object or objective case, are called neuter. Neuter means neither. Verbs are divided into active, passive and neuter. Verbs which are neither active nor passive, are neuter. Passive verbs will be noticed in a future lesson. In the sentence, John studies grammar,' John is the agent, actor, or word which causes the action, and is in the nominative case; studies is the verb, because it tells what John does, or what is affirmed of John; it is active, because it acts upon the object grammar; grammar being the object of the verb studies, is in the objective case. The true manner of putting sentences together is called Syntax. Some of the succeeding lessons will combine the rules of syntax with etymological parsing. A grammatical rule is an established law, by which reputable usage regulates the correct use of language. tion from a general rule is called an exception. A violation of a grammatical rule is termed a grammatical error. The present lesson contains two Rules of Syntax, which are numbered to correspond with the same in Syntax. The nominative case governs or determines the number or person of the verb. If the nominative case is in the singular number, the verb must be in the singular number to agree with it. The nominative case will answer the question who? or what? The objective case will answer the question, whom? or what? A devia 66. RULE I. The nominative case governs the verb in person and number. 67. RULE II. A verb agrees with its nominative case in person and number. (a) 68. Case is a change of termination or situation, to express the different relation of things to each other. 69. The nominative case denotes the subject of a verb, or the word which governs it. 70. The objective case denotes the object of a verb, a participle, or a preposition. FORM OF PARSING. Scholars is a common noun, third person, plural number, common gender, in the nominative case, because it is the subject, or a. Or,-A verb is of the same person and number that its nominative is. governs the verb waste. (Repeat 69 or 66.) Time is in the objective case, it being the object of the verb waste. Examples.-Idle scholars waste time. Contentment promotes happiness. Active verbs govern the objective case. tions govern the objective case. PreposiVermont derived its name from the Green Mountains. Ridicule provokes anger. Thirteen states first constituted the American confederacy. his country. Rome. Every patriot loves Cæsar conquered Pompey. Romulus founded Questions.-Do nouns sometimes occupy different situations in sentences? By what term, are these changes designated? What does nominative mean? Why so called? The meaning of objective? What are those words called which receive the action expressed by verbs? How many cases have verbs connected with them? What case governs verbs? What case is governed by verbs? What verbs are neuter? In the sentence, John studies grammar,' which is the agent or nominative case? Which is the verb? Which is the object of the verb, or the objective case? Why? What is the true manner of putting sentences together called? What is a grammatical rule? What is a deviation from it called? A violation of it? Of what number must the verb be? What will the nominative case answer? The objective? Repeat rule I? Rule II? What is case? The nominative case? The objective? Why is scholars in the nominative case? Why is time in the objective case? LESSON XVIII. POSSESSIVE CASE. Explanations.-The possessive case denotes a possessor or owner, and implies ownership or possession. Ezra's cap. Who is the owner or possessor of the cap? Ezra. What is the thing possessed? Cap. The noun or pronoun in the possessive case, always belongs to the name of the thing possessed; or the noun which follows it, in the same manner that an adjective does when placed before a noun. Nouns and pronouns in the possessive case resemble adjectives in their nature and use. This belonging to the name of the thing possessed is called government. The possessive case ends differently from the nominative. This difference of ending is designated by an apostrophe and the letter s or an apostrophe only. An apostrophe is a comma placed over a word. The possessive case is resolvable into the objective case and the preposition of; as, John's book,-the book of John. His book,the book of him. Turn to lesson 6 and see what it is to decline a noun or pronoun, and see how many cases they have. Review the personal pronouns, and decline them with the present lesson. The different cases of pronouns are distinguished by their spelling, and not by using an apostrophe. The Rules will be numbered to correspond with the same in Syntax. 71. RULE V. Nouns or pronouns in the possessive case, are usually governed by the noun, which follows them. 72. The possessive case denotes a possessor, and implies ownership or the possession of property. 73. The sign of the possessive case, is an apostrophe and the letters added to a noun, or an apostrophe only. 74. The apostrophe is placed before the s in the singular number. 75. "In the plural number, when the nominative ends with s, the possessive case is formed by adding an apostrophe only,"-by placing the apostrophe after the s. 76. The apostrophe is placed before the s in plural nouns that do not end with s; as, The aldermen's meeting. Webster's is a proper noun, third person, singular_number, in the possessive case and is governed by dictionary by Rule V. It denotes a possessor, and implies possession. Examples.-Webster's dictionary contains the improvements of the English language. The scholar's obedience met the teacher's approbation. The young ladies' modesty secured to them a lasting reputation. Man's destiny in life depends much upon his demeanor. A mother's counsel aids greatly the formation of her children's character. The boy's diligence in school presaged his future greatness. Parents' anxiety for their children's welfare surpasses conception. Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever. Questions.-What does the possessive case denote? What does it imply? To what does a noun or pronoun in the possessive case belong? What does the possessive case resemble? What is the possessive case's belonging to a following noun called? Does the possessive end like the nominative? How is this ending designated? What is an apostrophe? Into what is the possessive resolvable? Resolve an example? What is it to decline a noun or pronoun? How many cases have nouns and pronouns? Decline the personal pronouns? How are the cases of personal pronouns distinguished? Repeat Rule V? What does the possessive case denote and imply? The sign of the possessive? Where is the apostrophe placed in the singular? Repeat 75? Repeat 76? Decline king? man? lady? Why is Webster's in the possessive case LESSON XIX. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Explanations.-Most adjectives in the English language admit what grammarians call the degrees of comparison. Some are used only in one or two degrees. The first degree is called the positive; the second, the comparative; the third, the superlative. Adjectives have no person, number, gender, nor case. Their on ly modifications are the degrees of comparison, which are differently expressed. Various degrees may be expressed by adverbs. When we speak of the mere quality of a thing, without comparing it with any other possessing the same quality, the adjective is said to be in the positive degree. When two things are compared with each other, the adjective is in the comparative degree. When more than two things are compared, the adjective is in the superlative degree. Positive means asserting; comparative, com. paring; superlative, highest or lowest. One apple is sweet; another is sweeter; a third is sweetest. Sweet merely indicates the quality of the apple without comparing it with another of the same quality, and is, therefore, in the positive degree. Sweeter indicates a comparison between the second apple and the first, and is in the comparative degree. Sweetest indicates that the third apple exceeds all the other apples in sweetness, and is, therefore, in the superlative degree. One tree is tall; another, taller; a third, tallest. One man prosperous; another, more prosperous; a third, most prosperous. One lady is amiable; another, more amiable; a third, most amiable. This comparing words with one another, constitutes what is called the degrees of comparison. Adjectives whose comparatives end with er, and whose superlatives end with est, and those which are compared by more and most, or less and least, are regularly compared. Every regular adjective susceptible of comparison, can be compared by more and most, or less and least. 78. "Adjectives have three degrees of comparison,the positive, the comparative, and the superlative." 79. The positive degree denotes the simple form of the adjective without any variation of meaning. 80. The comparative degree increases or lessens the meaning of the positive; and denotes a comparison between two persons or things. 81. The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the greatest extent; and denotes a comparison between one and all other persons or things of the same kind. 82. The comparative degree of adjectives is formed by adding er to the positive, or r only when the adjective ends with es or by prefixing more or less. 83. The superlative degree is formed by adding est to the positive, or st only when the adjective ends with e; or by prefixing most or least. 84. Adjectives ending with y after a consonant, change y into i before er and est. 85. Adjectives of one syllable ending with a single consonant after a single vowel, double the last letter before er and est; as, hot, fat, sad, wet, and thin. 86. Adjectives of one syllable, and some adjectives of two syllables, that are susceptible of comparison, are compared like high, wise, dry, or thin. thinner, Super. wisest. driest." thinnest. 87. Most adjectives of two syllables, and all adjectives of more than two, are compared like excellent or studi Larger is an adjective,-pos. large, comp. larger,-in the comparative degree; it indicates a comparison between the countries, Asia and Europe. (Repeat 80.) It belongs to Asia. Repeat Rule IV. ca. Examples.-Asia is larger than Europe. New Holland is the largest island in the world. Dryden is the greater writer; Pope is the better poet.-Dr. Johnson. Europe is smaller than AmeriAn honest man is the noblest work of God. Italy affords the most beautiful specimens of marble. The least sinful indulgence brings misery. Virgil is less animated and less sublime than Homer; but he has fewer negligencies, greater variety, and more dignity.-Blair. Questions. What do most adjectives admit? In how many degrees are some used? What is the first degree of comparison? the second? the third? What are the modifications of adjectives? By what may various degrees be expressed? When is a word in the positive degree? when in the comparative degree? when in the superlative? The meaning of the word positive? comparative? superlalive? What does sweet indicate? sweeter? sweetest? What constitutes the degrees of comparison? What adjectives are regularly compared? What are called irregular adjectives? What is said respecting comparison? How many degrees of comparison have adjectives? What does the positive degree denote? the comparative? the superlative? How is the comparative degree formed? the superlative? Adjectives ending with y? What letters are vowels? What are consonants? Repeat 85. Like what are adjectives of one syllable and some adjectives of two syllables compared? Like what are most adjectives of two syllables and all adjectives of more than two syllables compared? Compare high? wise? dry? thin? excellent? studious? Like which do you compare mad? safe? able? happy? lovely? likely? discreet? fine? careful? amiable? proud? tall? pious? Repeat Rule IV. Why is larger an adjective? Why in the comparative degree? Like what do you compare it? Remark.-Subpositive, Comp. bluer, Super. bluest. Bluish, Pos. blue, brown, red, |