CHAPTER IV.

THE MIDDLE AGES-PERIOD OF TRANSITION.

THE INTERPRETATION OF THE FERIOD.

Development of the Roman Empire.

We have traced the evolution of society around the Mediterranean basin up to the formation of the Roman Empire. It was a civilization that embraced all the western peoples that up to this time had developed any civilization. Through the conquest of Rome, these peoples had been forced together, had been given a common government, common law, and common religion. But the sciences were not sufficiently developed at this time to make it practicable for a society spread over so wide an area to hold together. Even with the superb Roman roads and all possible provisions for rapid transit, Rome was still a month of travel distant from the extremities of the empire. In addition to this, the Roman world never conceived the idea of representative government, and the organization of the city state was ill fitted to the work of the empire. Although citizenship was extended to all free men within its bounds, it was a genuine impossibility to exercise the rights of citizenship, for these rights could be exercised only at Rome. Such was the condition of the empire, that although no invasion of the barbarians had taken place, a readjustment must necessarily have followed, or the empire would have fallen to pieces of its own weight.

Outlying Races.

Outside of this nucleus of civilization, to the north and to the southeast, stretched a great area of barbarism. North of the Roman frontier wandered the Ger

man tribes, and in the deserts of Arabia were found the Arabs. From these two sources were to issue forth great human streams to overflow the empire.

The area of civilization was to be enlarged to take in the country inhabited by these peoples. Society was to be reorganized on a more magnificent scale and in a more complex manner. As the Romans did not conquer the Germans, as they did not spread their civilization among the Teutonic peoples, it was necessary that the Teuton should go to the Roman, if civilization was to progress. The result was a temporary decadence, but a decadence that made a greater progress possible. It was the winter out of which comes the spring. It is with this period of transition from the Greco-Roman type of civilization to the so-called medieval type that we have to do in this paper. It stretches from the fourth century A.D. to 840 A.D., from the beginning of the migrations to the fall of the empire of Charlemagne.

The Elements of Feudal Civilization.

If we would understand the new civilization that thus came into existence, we must understand the elements of which it was composed. We must study the German in his northern home as we find him described in Tacitus and Caesar, and as he expressed himself in his own laws. We must study the Roman life before the empire was invaded by the Germans and understand the institutions that were to be embodied in this. new civilization. But even before the invasion began, the Roman empire had begun to decay. Society around the Mediterranean basin was actually readjusting itself to its environment, and it is asserted that, had the German migrations never taken place, the empire would have fallen into medieval conditions. Indications of this change were visible on all hands in the fourth century A. D. Undoubtedly, one of the

most potent factors in this readjustment was the Christian religion. Around the religion of a people are built up its institutions, and it has been said that if the religion of a people be destroyed, it will inevitably lead to the decay of its civilization. Change its religion and you change its civilization.

The decay, then, of the old faiths and the rise of Christianity naturally led to the transformation of the entire life of the people. This new faith was rapidly spread throughout the empire, was hostile to many existing forms of life, and led to their decay. As it grew, it seized upon many of the old institutions, fitting itself into the moulds it found already existing. It framed itself upon the imperial organization, and it was this imperial organization that, with the Christian church, was to exert a tremendous influence upon medieval life. Without an understanding of the influence of the imperial organization and of the Christian. church upon the Middle Ages, the life of that period will be an unsolved riddle.

The Overthrow of the Empire.

Not only had the empire begun to decay before the migrations, but the Germans, in large numbers, had made their way within its bounds before they fell upon it in armed bands. During a long period of time there had been a gradual infiltration of German life. The Germans came in as slaves, as laborers, as soldiers, and as generals. The whole vitality of the Roman empire, its defense against the barbarians, depended more, year by year, upon these barbarians themselves.

In the fourth century, as the administration decayed,, as the revenues decreased, and the imperial dignity fell into weaker and weaker hands, it became more and more difficult to keep the Germans beyond the frontier. They pressed in on every side. The discipline of the Roman troops was not capable of restraining the march of the barbarian bands. They entered the empire, were given lands, and by their settlements upon the frontier

formed an advance guard, and at the same time checked the hordes behind them and threatened Rome. Before Rome fell, she began to negotiate with her destroyers. She did not fall in a day, but went to pieces day by day, losing to the barbarians the west that had been the original seat of empire. For although the east and the west had been bound together under one administration and one law, the empire fell int two natural parts. In the east, Greek life was domi. nant, the Greek language was spoken, and Greek manners and customs were every where to be met with. Rome had never attempted to force her own civilization upon the more highly civilized Greek. The condition in the west was different. There the Roman had met with inferior civilizations in Spain and in Gaul, and wherever she conquered she spread her civilization. As Greek was the language of the east, so Latin was the language of the west. Roman schools, Roman manners and customs, Roman buildings, and Latin literature had taken the place of native institutions, languages, and customs. This separation of the Mediterranean world makes itself felt through all history, and this state of things, once understood, will explain many events of later history. For the German was to come directly in contact with the Latin half of the empire, and only indirectly and in later years with the Greek half. As the domination of the western or Latin half fell to the German, so the conquest of the eastern, or Greek half of the empire, was to be the portion of the Arab.

The German would, doubtless, in time have invaded the empire had he been influenced simply by desire of gain and by the growth of population in Germany, but another cause was at work that undoubtedly hastened the movement. It was the advance of the Huns into Europe. Sweeping into the Russian plain, they overthrew the Gothic empire and forced the Germans be

fore them to the West. Now began the great movement that was to end only with the entire loss of the western half of the empire. Fleeing before the invading Huns, the Visigoths passed the Danube and found protection within the borders of the empire. Moved by the same impulse, a great body of Germans, consisting of Vandals, Suevi, and Alans, crossed the Rhine, devastated Gaul, passed south across the Pyrenees and entered Spain. Other tribes crossed the Alps into Italy, but were either driven back or annihilated. Everywhere, the frontier had been penetrated, and the marching and counter marching of the barbarians within Roman territory was the most convincing proof of the powerlessness of imperial government and the indifference of the population. So great was the suffering under Roman officials that the people had actually fallen into the condition of the subjects of Eastern despots. It mattered little to them who their masters

were.

For a period of a hundred years, the Huns dominated central Europe. In the latter part of this period, under their famous leader Attila, they invaded Gaul, ravaged the country, but were met and defeated by the combined forces of the Romans, Franks, and Visigoths. It was the first time that the representatives of the future European civilization stood shoulder to shoulder in the struggle against Asiatic hordes. In the succeeding year, Attila crossed the Alps and invaded northern Italy, but for some unknown reason was led to retreat. His death in the following year put an end to his empire, and the Huns disappeared from European history.

Meanwhile, the relations between the Visigoths, who had settled south of the Danube, and the authorities at Constantinople were constantly growing more strained. Early in the fifth century the Visigoths revolted, and, under their newly created king, Alaric, began that re