to contend against a reaction, which increased daily, both in the convention and among the people. A law of October 16, 1794, forbade the affiliation of clubs, and on November 9, 1794, the Jacobin Club was finally closed, and soon after its place of meeting was demolished.

Jacquard Loom. The Jacquard apparatus, for the purpose of pattern-weaving, was invented by M. Joseph Marie Jacquard, a native of Lyons, France, in 1801. Being necessitated to carry on the weaving business of his father, for which he had a distaste, he endeavored to improve the existing machinery, and the Jacquard loom was the result. He enabled, by his invention, an ordinary workman to produce, with comparative ease, the most beautiful patterns in a style which had only previously been accomplished by skilled labor. The reception of his great invention by the public, however, was most discouraging, for although rewarded with a small pension by Napoleon, the silk-weavers offered such violent opposition to its introduction that on one occasion he narrowly escaped with his life. The machine was destroyed by the weavers on the public square of Lyons. The merit of the invention, however, was too great to admit of its being long suppressed, and when its value was once fairly recognized it effected a complete revolution in the art of weaving, especially in the finer kinds of figured silk fabrics. The Jacquard apparatus can be adjusted to almost every kind of loom, its office being merely to direct those movements of the warp-threads which are required to produce the pattern, and which previously were effected by the weaver's fingers. Its arrangements generally are very complicated, but its principles are remarkable for their extreme simplicity and certainty. On the same spot where the first machine was publicly destroyed a statue now stands, to show the gratitude of a more enlightened people.

January was among the Romans held sacred to Janus [see Janus and Jana], from whom it derived its name, and was added to the calendar, along with February, by Numa. It was not till the eighteenth century that January was universally adopted by European nations as the first month of the year, although the Romans considered it as such as far back as 251 B. C.

Janus and Jana, Latin divinities, male and female, whose names are merely different forms of Dianus (probably the sun) and Diana or Luna (certainly the moon). The former was worshiped by the Romans, and in every undertaking his name was first invoked. He presided not only over the beginning of the year, but over the beginning of each month, each day, and the commencement of all enterprises. The pious Romans prayed to him every morning. He is represented with a scepter in his right hand and a key in his left, sitting on a beaming throne. He has always two faces (whence the expression applied to a deceitful person, “Janus-faced"), one youthful and the other aged, the one looking forward and the other backward. Numa dedicated

to him the passage close by the Forum, on the road connecting the Quirinal with the Palatine. This passage (erroneously called a temple, but which was merely a sacred gateway, containing a statue of Janus) was opened in times of war and closed in times of peace. It was shut only thrice in 700 years-first by Numa himself, again at the close of the first Punic war, and for the third time under Augustus. January, the first month of the year, derived its name from Janus.

Jelly-Fishes consist of a jelly-like mass, containing a cavity which generally has a mouth from which extend tentacles, varying in length from 30 to 100 feet. From the center, tubes pass to

connect with other tubes around the circumference. Their food is smaller marine animals, which they catch with thread-like lassos attached to their tentacles. Agassiz divided jelly-fishes, or medusa, into three orders: Beroid medusa, medusa proper, and hydroida. Of the beroids the most curious are the pleurobrachia, found off the north-east coast of America. It is melon-shaped, and, like a melon, its surface is striped, being divided by eight rows of fringes. Its two tentacles are plume-like in appearance, and exceedingly graceful, sweeping about in curves near the surface of the sea. The medusa proper, known as the "sunfish," when large is one of the most beautiful of the jelly-fishes. This is disk-shaped, from 8 to 12 inches in diameter, with tentacles 100 feet in length. The young are hatched in the spring, reach full growth by midsummer, and die in the fall. Soon after hatching the little jelly-fish attaches itself to a shell or piece of sea-weed. Later the body divides horizontally, the segments become more and more separate, and finally each one floats away by itself as an ephyra, which eventually develops into a perfect "sunfish." The Gulf of Mexico furnishes the finest of the hydroids. Tenney thus describes the "Portuguese man-of-war:" It consists of an elegantly-creased air-sac, floating upon the water and giving off numerous long and varied appendages. These are the different members of the community, and fulfill different offices, some eating for the whole, others producing medusæ buds, and others being locomotive or swimming members, and having tentacles that stretch out behind the community to the length of twenty or thirty feet. All of these and many other species of the jellyfish are beautifully colored, and their phosphorescence by night, as they rapidly glide about, has given them the name Lamps of the Sea."

Jerked-Beef is beef preserved by drying in the sun. The cattle are slaughtered when in good condition, and the fleshy parts are dexterously pared off in such a manner as to resemble a succession of skins taken from the same animal. These sheets of flesh, which are rarely more than an inch in thickness, being exposed to the sun, dry before decomposition commences, and in that state can be kept almost any length of time. The beef is sometimes dipped into brine or rubbed with salt before being dried. Jerked

beef is properly called charqui, and, like its name, is of Chilian origin, although now made in large quantities in Montevideo, Buenos Ayres, and other places in South America. It is very largely used in Cuba, where it is called tasajo.

Jesuits, Society of, was founded by Ignatius of Loyola, assisted by Peter Le Feyre, a Savoyard; James Lainez, Francis Xavier, Nicholas Bobadilla, Spaniards, and a Portuguese named Rodriguez, in the year 1534. The society, when first conceived, had for its object a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and the conversion of the infidels. This purpose, however, was abandoned owing to the warfare existing at that time between the Turks and the Western powers, and Loyola and his associates turned their attention to an organization designed to labor zealously in resisting the spread of the Reformation. In 1539 the rule of the proposed order-“To the greater glory of God"-and the vow by which they bound themselves to go as missionaries to any country which the Pope might indicate was submitted to Paul III, and Loyola was made the first General of the order. The Society of Jesuits is one of the most celebrated religious orders of the Roman Catholic Church, and its history has been closely identified at times with that of several of the leading countries of Europe. Many good Roman Catholics, however, denounce this order, claiming that Jesuitism is the synonym of craft and duplicity-a reputation resulting from their avowed principle that "the end justifies the means. However that may be, it remains a fact that the Jesuits have been driven out of France, Italy, Spain, and many other countries.

Jewish Year. It is supposed that the Jewish year was instituted about the time of the Exodus. Though the characteristics of any single year cannot be fixed from the Sacred Record, the essential points of division for years in general are known. The year was undoubtedly solar-that is, it included the time of the sun's apparent revolution in the ecliptic. Had this been otherwise the feast of the first fruits, when the offerings of harvesttime were made, which was fixed by law at a certain time of the year, would in the lapse of a few years be thrown quite out of its proximity to the harvest season. But the months, it is quite as certain, were lunar, each beginning with a new moon; therefore there must have been some method of adjustment. After the captivity the custom of inserting an intercalary or thirteenth month was followed, and this extra month was inserted seven times in a cycle of nineteen years. The method by which the Jews fixed the commencement of each year is not exactly known, but probably the rising or setting of some star which was known to mark the right time of the solar year was used to determine it. The time from one Passover to another, therefore, varied. It usually included twelve lunar months of thirty days each, but occasionally had thirteen months. After the captivity the Jews had two reckonings for each year-the sacred and the civil reckonings. By the sacred reckoning, which had been instituted at the Exodus, the

first month of the year was the month Abib, occurring about the time of the vernal equinox. By the civil reckoning the first month was Tazri, the seventh of the sacred year, beginning at near the time of the autumnal equinox.

Jingo and Jingoism.-The word " Jingoes" came into use in England during the closing days of the late war between Turkey and Russia, and was applied to those whose attitude toward Russia was hostile. It originated, according to Justin McCarthy, in the following manner: "Some Tyrtæus of the tap-tub, some korner of the music-halls, had composed a ballad which was sung at one of those caves of harmony every night amidst the tumultuous applause of excited patriots. The refrain of this war-song contained the spirit-stirring words 'We don't want to fight, but, by jingo, if we do, we've got the ships, we've got the men, we've got the money, too;' and some one whose pulses this lyrical outburst of national pride failed to stir called the party of enthusiasts the Jingoes--a name which was caught up at once.'

Journalism, Beginning and Growth of.-The first printed newspaper was the Gazette, published in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1457; and the oldest paper extant is the Neue Zeitung aus Hispanien und Italien, printed in the same city in 1534. Other countries followed Germany in issuing printed newspapers in the following order: England, in 1622; France, in 1631; Sweden, in 1644; Holland, in 1656; Russia, in 1703; Turkey, in 1827. The first American paper consisted of three pages of two columns each and a blank page, and was published in Boston, September 25, 1690, under the name of Publick Occurrences, both Foreign and Domestic, but it was immediately suppressed. In 1704 the Boston News Letter appeared, printed on one sheet of foolscap paper. It flourished for seventy-two years. The oldest newspaper in the United States is the Weekly Massachusetts Spy, published at Worcester, Mass. This paper was established at Boston, March 3, 1771, by Isaiah Thomas, the historian of American printing. It was removed to Worcester in 1775, where it has been issued continuously ever since. The total number of newspapers published in the world at present is estimated at about 43,000, ̄distributed as follows: United States, 17,000; Germany, 5,500; Great Britain, 6,000; France, 4,092; Japan, 2,000; Italy, 1,400; AustriaHungary, 1,200; Asia, exclusive of Japan, 1,000; Spain, 850; Russia, 800; Australia, 700; Greece, 600; Switzerland, 450; Holland, 300; Belgium, 300; all others, 1,000. Of these, about half are printed in English. The whole number of periodicals published in the United States in 1887 was 16,310. The whole number of copies printed during the year was 2,497,354,000. The first printing-office in the United States was established in 1639, the first political newspaper was published in 1733, the first daily paper in 1784, the first penny paper in 1833, and the first illustrated paper in 1853.

Juggernaut. The temple in the town of Juggernaut, one of

the chief places of pilgrimage in India, contains an idol of the Hindu god, called Jaggernaut or Juggernaut, a corruption of the Sanscrit word Jagannatha, i. e., lord of the world. The legend regarding the building of the town, the erection of the temple and the formation of the idol is as follows: A king desirous of founding a city sent a learned Brahmin to pitch upon a proper spot. The Brahmin, after a long search, arrived upon the banks of the sea, and there saw a crow diving into the water, and, having washed its body, making obeisance to the sea. Understanding the language of birds, he learned from the crow that if he remained there a short time he would comprehend the wonders of this land. The king, apprised of this occurrence, built on the spot where the crow had appeared a large city and a place of worship. The Rajah one night heard in a dream a voice saying, "On a certain day cast thine eyes on the sea-shore, when there will arise out of the water a piece of wood 52 inches long and 1 1-2 cubits broad; this is the true form of the Deity; take it up and keep it hidden in thine house seven days; and in whatever shape it shall then appear, place it in the temple and worship it. It happened just as the Rajah had dreamed, and the image, called by him Jagannatha, became the object of worship of all ranks of people, and performed many miracles. The car-festival, when Jagannatha is dragged in his car on a yearly visit to his country quarters, is currently believed to be the occasion of numerous cases of self-immolation, the frantic devotees committing suicide by throwing themselves before the wheels of the heavy car. This has been proved, however, upon good authority, to be untrue.

July was the fifth month in the Roman calendar, and was called Quintilis, the fifth. Originally it contained 36 days, but was reduced by Romulus to 31, by Numa to 30, but was restored to 31 by Julius Caesar, in honor of whom it was named July, on account of his birth having happened on the twelfth of this month. It was called Mad-monath, or mead-month, and litha-aftera, or after-mild-month, by the Anglo-Saxons.

June, the fourth month among the Romans. It consisted originally of 26 days, to which four were added by Romulus, one was taken away by Numa, and the month again lengthened to 30 days by Julius Cæsar. It was so called from the goddess Juno. Among the Anglo-Saxons it was called sear-monath, or dry-month, and midsumer-monath.

Jungfrau. The word jungfrau, which signifies "the maiden," is the name of one of the highest mountains of the Bernese Alps. It rises on the boundary-line between the cantons of Bern and Valais, and attains a height of 13,720 feet. It received its name either from the unsullied purity and dazzling brightness of the snow, by which its summit is covered, or from the fact that no traveler had ever reached its highest point. Its summit was first reached by two Swiss gentlemen in 1811, and since by Agassiz, Professor Forbes and many others.