Thickening and Gelling Agents for Food

1 Agar.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Raw Materials.- 1.3 Production.- 1.4 Agars Obtained from Various Agarophytes.- 1.5 Chemical Composition.- 1.5.1 Agarose.- 1.5.2 Agaropectin.- 1.6 Agar Gelation.- 1.7 Synergies and Incompatibilities of Agar.- 1.8 Applications.- 1.8.1 Food Applications.- 1.8.2 Regulations for Agar in Foods.- 1.8.3 Other Applications of Agar.- References.- 2 Alginates.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Manufacture.- 2.2.1 Raw Materials.- 2.2.2 Commercial Alginates.- 2.3 Chemical Composition.- 2.3.1 General.- 2.3.2 Configuration.- 2.3.3 Alginate Biosynthesis.- 2.3.4 Block Structure Analysis.- 2.4 Functional Properties.- 2.4.1 Viscosity.- 2.4.2 Gelation.- 2.4.3 Gel Strength.- 2.5 Gel Formation Techniques.- 2.5.1 General.- 2.5.2 Diffusion Setting, Neutral pH.- 2.5.3 Diffusion Setting, Acid pH.- 2.5.4 Internal Setting, Neutral and Acid pH.- 2.5.5 Combined Setting.- 2.5.6 Setting by Cooling.- 2.5.7 Alginate/Pectin Gels.- 2.6 Alginate Processes for Food Production.- 2.6.1 General.- 2.6.2 Appropriate Food Raw Materials.- 2.6.3 Commercial Alginate Gel Restructured Products.- 2.6.4 Examples of Production Formats.- 2.6.5 Alginate Products for the Bakery Industry.- 2.7 Thickening and Stabilising.- 2.7.1 Thickening.- 2.7.2 Stabilising.- 2.7.3 Thickening/stabilising with Propylene Glycol Alginate.- 2.8 Film Formation.- 2.9 Summary.- References.- 3 Carrageenan.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Raw Materials.- 3.3 Manufacturing.- 3.4 Regulation.- 3.5 Functional Properties.- 3.6 Synergism with Food Ingredients.- 3.7 Food Applications.- References.- 4 Cellulose Derivatives.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Manufacture.- 4.3 MC and MHPC: Chemistry And Properties.- 4.4 HPC: Chemistry and Properties.- 4.5 CMC: Chemistry and Properties.- 4.6 Major Commercial Applications in Food Products.- 4.6.1 Introduction.- 4.6.2 Frozen Desserts.- 4.6.3 Fruit Juice-Based Drinks and Products.- 4.6.4 Bakery Products.- 4.6.5 Dairy Products.- 4.6.6 Structured, Extruded and Coated Products.- 4.6.7 Miscellaneous food Applications.- 4.6.8 Future Developments.- References.- 5 Exudate Gums.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Gum Arabic.- 5.2.1 Introduction.- 5.2.2 Manufacture.- 5.2.3 Chemical Composition.- 5.2.4 Functional Properties.- 5.2.5 Applications.- 5.2.6 Future Developments.- 5.3 Gum Tragacanth.- 5.3.1 Introduction.- 5.3.2 Manufacture.- 5.3.3 Chemical Composition.- 5.3.4 Functional Properties.- 5.3.5 Applications.- 5.3.6 Future Developments.- 5.4 Gum Karaya.- 5.4.1 Introduction.- 5.4.2 Manufacture.- 5.4.3 Chemical Composition.- 5.4.4 Functional Properties.- 5.4.5 Applications.- 5.4.6 Future Developments.- References.- 6 Gellan Gum.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Manufacture.- 6.3 Chemical Composition.- 6.4 Functional Properties.- 6.4.1 Hydration.- 6.4.2 Solution Properties.- 6.4.3 Gel Formation.- 6.4.4 Gel Properties.- 6.4.5 Gum Combinations.- 6.5 Regulatory Status.- 6.6 Applications.- 6.7 Future Developments.- References.- 7 Gelatin.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Gelatin: Definition.- 7.3 Collagen.- 7.4 Collagen-Gelatin Transformation.- 7.5 Gelatin Manufacture.- 7.5.1 Pretreatment.- 7.5.2 Extraction and Post-Extraction Processing.- 7.5.3 Commercial Gelatin.- 7.6 Chemical Structure.- 7.6.1 Composition.- 7.6.2 Isoelectric Point.- 7.6.3 Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution.- 7.7 Functional Properties.- 7.7.1 Gelation Mechanism.- 7.7.2 Gel Strength.- 7.7.3 Melting Point.- 7.7.4 Setting Point.- 7.7.5 Viscosity.- 7.7.6 Turbidity.- 7.7.7 Colour.- 7.7.8 Colloid Protection.- 7.8 Uses of Gelatin in the Food Industry.- 7.8.1 Confectionery.- 7.8.2 Dairy Products.- 7.8.3 Meat Industry.- 7.8.4 Hydrolysed Gelatin Applications.- 7.8.5 Miscellaneous Applications.- References.- 8 Konjac Gum.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Raw Materials.- 8.3 Manufacturing.- 8.4 Regulation.- 8.5 Chemical Structure.- 8.6 Functional Properties.- 8.6.1 Thickening Agent.- 8.6.2 Gelling Agent: Thermally Reversible Gels.- 8.6.3 Thermally Stable Gels.- 8.7 Dietary Fibre.- 8.8 Food Applications.- Additional Reading.- 9 Microcrystalli...