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fectly done by mechanical means, and a scale formed in proportion. This being placed under the microscope, and covered with a drop of water containing infusoria, has enabled observers to compare the smal infusory animalcules which dart about and sometimes rest on the surface of the scale. It has been ascertained that they are not larger than one of these divisions. At this degree of enlargement no detail can be perceived. The infusoria resemble small globules, but the nature of their movements, jerking angular, and frequently retrograde, shows that we have before us small creatures endowed with spontaneous movement, and consequently provided with means of locomotion, such as muscles and cilia, or other appendages. M. Gaudin imagines one of these little entities enlarged to the diameter of one mètre, and then gives us a fancy sketch of the creature and also of a small portion of one of its cilia enlarged to about 45 millimètres in length, in which he shows the imaginary building up of the structure by molecules of au organic nature, represented as one millimètre in diameter. These molecules would be of the nature of albumen, and would bear about the same relation to the ultimate atoms as a basketful of grapes would to a single grape. Chemical considerations, too abstract to enter into this paper make it probable that the number of atoms in a cube of metal the size of a pin's head would be expressed by the cube of 20 millions. I will not follow further the deductions of this author, whose calculations may seem to some persons fanciful; but his beautiful work L' Architecture du Monde des Atomes commends itself at once to those who have sufficient mental training to follow his deductions. His merit has been appreciated in the highest scientific quarters of France.

I may then safely draw my own inference which is this: We have, in the body of the small infusorial animalcule, been considering a certain number of atoms, and these combined into molecules in conformity with certain well-known chemical affinities; but we have also the evidence of another wholly different power acting upon the whole of these molecules and not resulting from any properties in the molecules themselves. We may call this power (for argument's sake) life, and see that in virtue of this we have one individuality, one will, one centre of action, and one centre of reproduction, whether fissile or otherwise. We have, doubtless, growth, maturity, and decay, characteristics of organisation, but contrary to all that is known of chemical combination. Moreover, we must bear in mind that we have in our small animalcule a protozoon rather than a protophyte, and that its movements are connected with seeking its food amidst the unconceivably more minute protophyta who, like all plants, have power of feeding upon and decomposing the molecules of inert matter. We have then, in their movements, the exercise of a will wholly opposed to the chemical actions we have been contemplating. No atom has ever the choice whether to advance or to retrograde, to go to the right hand or to the left, nor what place it shall take in the compound, molecule. Whence, then, comes the free will which characterises this organised matter? Certainly not from molecule combination.

now as much the subject of proof as those about the falling of an apple It was from the results of an examination of two gases (olefiant gas and marsh gas) that Dalton was first led to the conception of his theory. He ascertained that both gases consist of carbon and hydrogen only; and he set out the centesimal composition of each in the customary manner. But he observed further that the ratio of hydrogen to carbon is exactly twice as great in the one case as in the other; that in olefiant gas, for instance, the carbon is to the hydrogen as six is to one, whereas in marsh gas it is as six to two; or, in other words, a given quantity of carbon unites with either one or two proportions of hydrogen to form the above compounds. Dalton, whose turn of mind might be described as the expression of common sense in its mechanical aspect explained the constitution of these two compounds by supposing that the first consisted of one atom of carbon united with one atom of hydrogen, while the second consisted of one atom of carbon united with two atoms of hydrogen, the atom of carbon being considered to have six times the weight of the atom of hydrogen. He then calculated the composition of other bodies on the same plan, and found, for instance, that the quantity of hydrogen which unites with six parts of carbon to form olefiant gas unites with eight parts of oxygen to form water. Hence the atom of oxygen was considered to have eight times the weight of the atom of hydrogen. The crowning point of Dalton's theory was reached when he discovered that the numbers which expressed the respective combining proportions of carbon and oxygen with one part of hydrogen, also expressed the proportions in which they unite with each other. Thus the ratio of carbon to oxygen in carbonic oxide gas was found to be as six to twice eight. The former compound he considered to result from the union of one atom of carbon with one atom of oxygen, and the latter to result from the union of one atom of carbon with two atoms of oxygen. Dalton extended the same views to the compounds of nitrogen and concluded that the quantity of that element, which united with one part of hydrogen to form ammonia, united with eight parts of oxygen to form nitrous gas. We may apply this formula for nitrous gas to the compound known as nitrous an hydride; though, from an error in the rough process of analysis then adopted, it was intended to apply to what is now called nitric oxide, or deutoxide of nitrogen.

Dalton thus established the general principle in chemistry known as the law of combination in definite and multiple proportions. He showed that a particular number might be selected for every element in such a manner that the proportions by weight in which any two or more elements combined together should be always in the ratios of their respective numbers, or of different multiples of those numbers. And he accounted for this law by supposing that the elements unite with one another, atom to atom, and that the proportionate number accorded to each particular demand expresses the relative weight of its atom. Hydrogen, being the lightest substance in nature, was at once chosen by Dalton as the unit in his scale of atomic weights, and the weights in the I do not propose to myself the task of enabling my readers to keep pace atoms of other elements were established by ascertaining directly or inwith the progress of the science; but having grown up with the atomic directly the respective quantities of those elements which unite either theory of Dalton, and from early youth followed with delight its further with one part of hydrogen or with the quantity of some other element development, I find that I think chemicsily. I have constantly acted which unites with one part of hydrogen. The founder of the doctrine upon the certified details of chemical combinations with the same con- which I have sought to explain might, if he had lived to this day, have fidence that a traveller feels in consulting "Bradshaw." He may complain boasted, with more probable truth than the Roman poet, that he had of the bad type, or the arrangement of the contents, but the familiar erected a monument which even the ravages of time could not destroy. book is his guide after all. I thus find myself in altogether a different But his was the simplicity of the trae philosopher, as was specially country and speaking a different language from others differently cir-appreciated by the French savants when they welcomed him to their cumstanced. It may seem very presumptuous to say that a writer who attempts to enlighten us in reference to the physical basis of life" does not travel by the Bradshaw of science, and, in fact, proposes to lead us along the old high road. In proof of this I must refer to what I have already written, but the result of fuller study of his mind shows me that the difference between our views is much more fundamental and substantial than I at first apprehended. When, according to the Professor's wish, we have "a scientific Sunday school in every parish," I hope the atomic theory will hold a prominent place in the instruction. No well-educated Sunday scholar would then think of listening to disquisitions on the origin of things, such as we find in Huxley's Lay Ser

mons.

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At the risk of exacting an unreasonable amount of attention, I will now recall some of the elementary lessons in this science, and seek to show that we not only imagine, but know that matter has a substance, and that Newton's views about the constitution of ultimate atoms are

capital.

I am struck, in reading over some notes of a discussion in an early meeting of the British Association, with the absence of self-assertion shown by Dalton. I do not find that he took any notice of the half atoms talked about by some inferior men. As a disciple of Dalton, I claim (on his behalf) that his views of matter are consistent with common sense and with revealed religion. On the other hand, I have proved, beyond contradiction, that Professor Tyndall's views are consistent with neither. On recurring to my notes, I find that a certain chemist of less note conteuded for one-third atoms against Dalton. This seemed to me at the time so absurd that I kept no record of the discussion, except that of "ultimate atoms minimised,"-the word atom being derived from two Greek words which imply that which cannot be divided or cut asunder. I do not say there are not even now worthy successors to the individual alluded to above who dislike the atomic theory because it interferes with their mystical notions; but to show that modern

chemistry has been built up altogether in connexion with the theory of matter which we call gravitation of mass; that which causes the apple atoms, I will refer to the appropriately-coined word-Atomicity.

Tuis term is invented to express the combining capacity of an element. The atomicity of hydrogen, as exhibited in the single compound which it forms with chlorine is assumed as the standard of this force (I was about to say). I do not like the term force however, as it scarcely seems to describe accurately a power acting ab intra, and not ab extra; but this former power is what very specially characterises the properties of matter, as seen from a chemical point of view. We must in fact, regard atoms as "substantial" centres of force (if this term be used), and as combining with mathematical certainty on the lines of their affinities, or separating as the result of superior attraction on the one hand, or of force (ab extra) on the other.

66

are

I may be pardoned for explaining my meaning by reference to familiar use of words. When two young persons have a liking for each other, we do not call this force; and yet their caring for each other may have very important influence on their future destinies. Now we are compelled to speak of the affinities of atoms as very important indeed, and these 'affinities," if unsatisfied, may lead to the dismemberment of the molecule; or, shall we say, to the breaking up of the household. In some cases, two individual atoms are quite taken up with each other, as chlorine and hydrogen; and are consequently termed monatomic, monadie, or univalent. But oxygen unites with two atoms of hydrogen, and is diatomic, dyadic, or bivalent. Nitrogen combines with three atoms of hydrogen, carbon combines with four atoms of hydrogen, and 80 forth. It is fortunate that we able to calculate with perfect certainty the basis of the permanent likings or dislikings of these small bodies. Though violence may sever, they always retain the same measure of affection. It is equally fortunate that when a molecule is established by means o these affinities there is no law to render the alliance stable. Chemical change mostly depends on our being able to entice away an atom from its molecule, or to present to a molecule that has taken possession of more atoms than it can well keep a more tempting object which replaces another in the magic ring. This is called, in chemical language, substitution. Tuus chlorine and bromine may in many instances be introduced into hydrogen compounds by direct substitution; one atom of hydrogen being removed and entering into combination with one atom of chlorine or bromine, while another atom of the haloid element takes the place of the hydrogen removed. Thus when chlorine acts upon marsh gas (methylic hydride) the products are hydrochloric acid and methylic chloride : CH + CI 4

2

=

HCI+CH CI
8

and by the continued action of the chlorine the latter may be converted successively into CH2 Cl2 and CH Cg, the last being the compound usually called chloroform. Behold the transformation!

to fall from the tree; that which has enabled mankind to construct the balance and the weights. But in all this we find not the slightest approach to what we call mind, nor to the exercise of any power of organization, or of combination that serves one common purpose.

What then are we say of force? This at all events as an abstract conception can neither be weighed nor measured; and the proper idea of force is surely destructive, and not constructive. The experience of mankind has ever looked upon the flash of lightning as the embodiment of force, and thus the thunderbolts were of old put into the hands of Jupiter Tonans. It is somewhat arrogantly said that the great achievement of the age is to have taken these weapons out of the hand of the Thunderer and adapted them to our every-day purposes. Moreover, we are to teach all the young scholars in the proposed new Sunday schools that we know all about the lightning now, and that it is simply a display of electricity. But if any junior of enquiring mind asks, "What then is electricity?" he will probably be told that it is a "name given to a series of phenomena," and that "it derives its name from the Greek word electron, amber, which, when well rubbed, has the power of attracting bodies." He might be further told about "an extremely subtle fluid," but if the enfant terrible pursued his enquiries to the point whether this fluid was matter or no matter, he would surely be told that such subjects were beyond the grasp, at all events, of a Sunday scholar.

But if I put this enquiry to modern science, I shall, doubtless, receive a satisfactory answer, since whatever is capable of being measured, whether by Ells or by Ohms, must certainly he ranked amongst phenomen of matter, though it be not ponderable. I put to myself the question Matter or no matter, whilst gazing on the crimson glories of the recently observed Aurora. I look on it all as a display of terrestrial magnetism. I turn to my books for an answer to the question—what is magnetism ?- and I find that it is specially an attractive power residing in the magnet. But then what is that extraordinary white beam which I saw traversing the heavens at the same time? Was that material? So that I must tell the boys that in the lightning we behold embodied force, in the Aurora, embodied power; but if I ask after embodied mind in man, I shall, like the troublesome boys, be driven on to the question of embodied not mind in the birds, which before my eyes are feasting on provisions hung up for them during the frost. I watch their ways with much amusement, and, if I were a Greek, should say they display much nous, though I grant no mind. My object in this paper is to show that, contrary to Professor Huxley's theory, the constitution of matter is a legitimate subject of inquiry, and that, pursuing research on the lines of common sense, we arrive at some certain knowledge of its properties, and attain to a strong presumption of accuracy as to our conception of its constitution. The resulting knowledge that we obtain shows us matter as subordinated in all things to the disposal of an Infinite mind, in its orderly arrangement affording scope for devout admiration; but as regards any possibility of deducting the properties of mind from those of matter, everything shows that the attempt must fail. Instead of Will and Choice, we encounter Destiny; instead of power of combination and

Now, I trust, I may be pardoned, in consideration of the importance of the result, for dwelling on these technicalities. Every one knows the soothing properties of chloroform, which exists nowhere in nature, but. is the product of the chemist's art. Its twin sister, iodoform, was re-organization, we meet with an all but infinite individuality; every atom cently the means of saving a young life, threatened by the result of a dreadful accident, and now full of hope and promise. The views which were attempted to be established, founded on the electrical relations of the elements, are diametrically opposed to what we now know of subзtitution. Thus, atoms, like chlorine, bromine, and iodine, are capable of replacing hydrogen, atom for atom, and discharging functions similar to those of hydrogen in the primary compound. It must be remembered that we are speaking of bodies of almost irreconcilable but not infinite minuteness; not absolutely in contact, nor on the other hand capable of exercising these affinities at any distance that we can define. The action is what we call instantaneous, and frequently most marked and pleasing. I have often been delighted with beholding the production of colour from colourless liquids, and of crystallization on the mixture of two uncrystallizable fluids.

Such then is matter, or as we may say, ponderable matter-subjected to destiny, acting according to implanted impulses, and with unerring certainty- -30 that when we understand the nature of these impulses we can avail ourselves of our knowledge to alter to an unknown extent the result ng combinations; producing continually things which have never existed from the beginning of time. But all this knowledge of matter is as I have shewn, the result of our knowledge of another property of

acts on its neighbours according to fixed properties and laws. Ponderable matter, then, stands in the same relation to us that it does to its Creator-the subject materia which we, as formed in the image of God, may, in proportion to our knowledge of its properties, mould at our will. I assert nothing, because we know nothing distinctly, about imponderable matter. In this direction there lies a whole world open to our inquiry, concerning which our present acquaintance is like that of children, deriving their knowledge of the ocean by wading fearfully amongst its tiny waves. On these I shall not enter. But in the meantime I challenge the popular philosophers above mentioned to the disproof of that which I have sought to establish.

THE DARWINIAN THEORY:

THREE LECTURES

by Professor A. MILNES MARSHALL, M.D., D.Sc., M.A., delivered at Owens
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LECTURE 1.- DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY.
LECTURE II. APPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY.
LECTURE III. - OBJECTIONS TO THE THEORY.

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66

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245

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