No universally accepted classification of the Indian tribes of North America exists. For most purposes, however, a convenient and trustworthy grouping is a combination of geographical and cultural characteristics. A division of the aborigines located north of Mexico on such a basis furnishes nine important culture areas: Arctic, Subarctic, Northwest coast, Great Basin, California, Plains, Southwest, Southeast, and Eastern Woodland. As is evident by reference to the map, these groups correspond roughly to the great physical divisions of North America.

Upon the above basis the Milwaukee Public Museum has planned and partially executed an Indian exhibit, which, when finished, will be one of the most extensive in the world. Of the nine groups planned, seven are now complete; as follows: Eastern WoodlandAlgonquian and Iroquoian; Iroquoian; Northwest coastKwakiutl; California-Pomo; Great Basin-Paiute; Southwest-Hopi; Arctic-Eskimo.1 Each group is supplied with a large mural painting showing some important historical event in the early contact of the whites with the tribe in question.

The group to be described in this article depicts one of the two great divisions of what is commonly known as the Woodland Indians. These Indians

comprised, for the most part, tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian stock. In general, they occupied the heavily wooded portion of eastern North America extending from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and from about the thirty-fourth parallel north far towards the Arctic circle. Owing to the historical importance of each stock and to striking differences in their culture, the Museum has devoted two groups to the Eastern Woodland Indians, one to the Algonquians and the other to the Iroquois. This article deals with the Algonquian.

The Algonquian tribes were the most numerous and, from the standpoint of the early whites, the most important of the natives of North America. With the

exception of the Iroquois in New York, the English. colonists came into contact almost solely with the Algonquians. Most of the early Indian tales relate to them. From them came the famous Indians Powhatan, hatan, Pocahontas, Opechancanough, Massasoit, Philip, Pontiac, Tecumseh, the Prophet, Red Jacket and Black Hawk. Acquaintance with the habits and culture of the Algonquians taught the pioneers many of the secrets of successful wilderness life. It is from them and the Iroquois that the popular notion of Indian life is largely derived.

As is the case with all primitive races, environment was the vital factor in determining the culture of the Woodland Indians. The wide differences in latitude in the area which they occupied caused important variations in culture, but beneath such variations there were certain striking characteristics held in common by practically all the Woodland tribes. The most notable of these common traits were: First, the wide use of birch bark in the making of canoes, wigwams and baskets; second, the extensive use of buckskin for clothing; third, the practice of agriculture to a somewhat limited extent, especially the growing of maize, beans, tobacco, and pumpkins; and fourth, strong development of the Manitou and other religious ideas.2

To illustrate the culture of the Algonquians concretely, the Museum chose the Ojibwas, or Chippewas, of the lake region in northern Wisconsin as subjects for the group. The Ojibwas gave less attention to agriculture than the more southern Algonquians, devoting most of their time to hunting and fishing and depending largely upon such wild vegetation as abounded in their vicinity. By far the most bountiful of such gifts of nature was wild rice, which flourished in rank abundance in the numerous lakes and rivers of the region and which served as a center for the industrial life of the tribe.3

In view of the attractiveness of this "Indian Paradise," as the upper lake region has been repeatedly styled, it is small wonder that it should have become a prize for which hostile tribes warred valiantly. The fiercest and most protracted of such struggles was that between the Algonquian Ojibwas and the Souian Dakotas. For over two hundred years these rivals fought bitterly for the rice fields, until finally in 1862 the Dakotas, who had gradually been forced westward by their redoubtable foes, were moved by the government to the valley of the Minnesota river and possession remained with the Ojibwas.

Considering then the importance wild rice played in the history and economy of the northern Algonquians, as well as the interest the group would arouse locally, the Museum wisely selected the wild-rice gathering Ojibwas of northern Wisconsin as representatives of the Algonquian stock.

Within a large, glass-protected case is a number of life-size figures representing Ojibwa Indians engaged in various activities. The case also contains sections of two full-size wigwams, part of a birchbark canoe, and several other appropriate objects. The floor is covered with sand, leaves, and artificial grass. On the wall at the rear, is a painting depicting on the left a hillside and on the right a lake bordered with woods and marshes (Figures B and C). The many-colored leaves and the state of the vegetation indicate that the season is autumn. The arrangement of the figures in the foreground is cunningly contrived so that they blend into the landscape painted at the rear and give a vivid, realistic representation of a typical Indian scene. The illustrations accompanying this article are from photographs of the exhibits.

In the background of the group is a marshbordered lake containing extensive fields of wild rice (Figure C). On the shore stand two wigwams made of mats of rushes and covered with birch bark (Figure B). In front of the bearskin door of the rear wigwam sits an old arrow-maker busily making arrows; his style of hair dressing proclaims him a brave. Within the front wigwam, the interior of which is shown in Figure A, sits an Indian mother making a birch bark basket. Leaning against the wall is her little pappoose bound tightly to its bed of soft fur on the cradle board. Within reach are the various materials used by the women in their manual arts: a roll of birch bark for basketry, a ball of bast fiber for woven bags, strings and rushes for mats. At her right, suspended by thongs of buckskin, hangs an unfinished rush mat. Above her head is a Woven storage bag. On the wall hang two wooden spoons. A small wooden bowl is on the mat-covered floor. The entire interior presents a typical, well-furnished Indian home. The illustration also shows the plan and method of construction of a well-built wigwam.

The most interesting features of the group, however, concern the work of the wild rice gatherers. To understand these features as well as to comprehend the importance of wild rice in the economic life of these Indians, some description of this remarkable

wild cereal and the processes used in its harvesting is necessary.

Wild rice is a beautiful, aquatic, annual plant. Early in June it appears at the surface of the water. At maturity the stalks vary in height from two to twelve feet above the water's edge. Seen at a distance, the rice beds seem to be low, green islands bearing fields of wheat, or maize. The seeds usually ripen in September, the fruit heads at that time having a slightly purplish tinge.

Late in August or early in September, or as Gordon puts it,

"In the golden-hued Wazu-pe-wee-the moon when the wild rice is gathered;

When the leaves on the tall sugar-tree are as red as the breast of the robin," +

5

the squaws, usually in pairs, go to the rice fields in small canoes to tie the stalks in small bunches, or sheaves. Fiber, or bast, of basswood bark is used for this purpose. Since it is impossible to paddle the canoe through the thick, heavy growth of rice, one of the squaws uses a forked pole to push it along, such as is seen in the prow of the canoe in Figure C, while the other with a curved, sickle-shaped stick gathers in a large quantity of stalks and, holding them with one hand, rapidly winds the bast around them, beginning at the lower end, for a distance of about two feet; then, bending the top over, she ties it to the upright part and the sheaf is complete. In this way a row of sheaves is formed on both sides of the canoe, the completed work presenting uniformity and beauty. Two or three weeks later the squaws harvest the rice by stripping off the bast windings and shaking the ripe, black kernels into the canoe. The rice is then dried slowly in the sun or over a fire.

The rice which is thus harvested after it has fully ripened is considered a great delicacy. The process is so laborious, however, that an insufficient quantity for the winter's needs can be secured in this way. Accordingly, when the rice is still in the milk stage, but fully filled and about ready to harden, the gatherers go out and, while one of the squaws sits in the stern and poles the canoe through the field, the other, by means of, a "whipping stick," gathers in the stalks, bends them over the side of the canoe and, with another "whipping stick," beats the kernels into the canoe. Since the kernels come with the shuck adhering, the rice is parched in a kettle in order to dry it and partially separate the kernel from the shuck. It is then ready for threshing and winnowing.

With few exceptions threshing is the work of the men and boys, all the preceding labor, as a rule, being done by women and children. Holes large enough to contain from a peck to a bushel are dug in the ground. They are lined with deer or moose hide. An Indian, steading himself by a stake driven in the ground, or by props as shown in Figure B, tramps out the grain. "It is only fair to say that he tries to have a new pair of buckskin moccasins for this work," adds Jenks, "but sometimes buckskin is scarce" and, in that case, the threshing is done barefooted."

A distinct line between threshing and winnowing exists only because the two processes are marked by a division of labor. "The Indian silently stalks into the labors of rice harvesting when the threshing begins, and when it is completed he silently stalks out again, leaving the woman to lift up the pile of mixed kernels and chaff in order that the windnature's fanning mill-may separate them." 8 For this purpose the squaw uses a birch bark tray. Holding it in front of her and shaking it in a peculiar manner, she quickly separates the chaff from the grain (Fig. B).

Wild rice is more nutritious than any other native food to which the Indian had access; this includes maize, strawberries, cranberries, sturgeon, brook trout, dried buffalo, and turkey. It is also more nutritious than any of our common cereals such as wheat, oats, or rice. "The Indian diet of this grain, combined with maple sugar and with bison, deer, and other meats," says Jenks, "was probably richer than that of the average American family today."

The rice was prepared for eating in a variety of ways. It was commonly used in stews of venison,

bear, fish, dog, and soups of all kinds, dishes of which the Indian was very fond. Neill records in 1840, after one of the numerous encounters between the Ojibwas and the Dakotas that the victors, the Ojibwas, "also cooked some of the flesh of the Sioux with their rice." 9 Sometimes the cooked rice was eaten plain; sometimes with maple sugar or other sweets; sometimes seasoned with whortle berries. It was frequently roasted and eaten dry on hunting trips. Jenks says that "fully 90 per cent of the white people who have eaten wild rice are fond of it," » 10 while according to Barrett, "Wild rice and pure maple sugar, combined with venison, is a dish fit for any king.'

" 11

The vital importance of wild rice to the Indians of the upper lake region appears in many ways. More than 160 places in the Great Lakes district bear names of Indian origin synonomous with wild rice. The completion of the wild rice harvest is celebrated by feasts, games, and religious ceremonies, sometimes curiously commingled. Indian mythology contains many stories explaining the origin of wild rice and illustrating its importance. During the seasons when

the rice crop failed famine decimated the tribe. One point always insisted upon by these Indians when about to be located on new reservations was the presence of rice fields. Jenks believes northern Wisconsin and eastern Minnesota-the section in which wild rice grew most abundantly-sustained an Indian population equal to all the rest of the Northwest Territory combined. "Wild rice," he adds, "was a chief means which made possible this greater population." If true and weighty evidence supports the thesis-this is eloquent testimony to the part this grain played in the Indian food supply.13

"12

There remains to be considered the large mural painting above the group. This portrays the landing of Jean Nicollet in Wisconsin in 1634, the first white man to set foot upon the soil of the great Northwest.

It was about 1620 that rumors first came to Champlain of a nation to the west called "People of the Sea." This race, it was said, had come from a land by the shore of a salt sea far to the west. In his ignorance of American geography, it is not strange that Champlain should have concluded that the people described must be either Chinese or Tartars from

the eagerly-sought Orient. Events prevented Champlain from immediately carrying out his desire to visit the strangers. Years passed by and, finding it impossible to go himself, he finally delegated the mission to Jean Nicollet.

Accompanied by seven Algonkins,14 Nicollet pushed his way "over a route full of horrors" up the Ottawa, through Lake Huron, up the Straits of Mackinac, along the wooded shores of Lake Michigan, to the head of Green Bay, where, after a journey of wellnigh a thousand miles, he landed at Red Banks, Wisconsin, in July, 1634.

Expecting to meet a Chinese mandarin at the end of his journey, Nicollet with praiseworthy forethought, had taken along "a grand robe of China damask, all strewn with flowers and birds of many colors." No mandarin was visible, but either because he really expected to be ushered into the presence of a Chinese monarch, or because he was unwilling to forego the satisfaction of wearing his magnificent garment, or because he understood the value of stately ceremonial in the eyes of the Indians, or perhaps from a sense of humor, Nicollet decked himself

in his rainbow garb and, carrying a pistol in each hand, went forward followed by his seven faithful Algonkins to meet a few half-naked Winnebagoes. For the Winnebagoes, a Souian tribe, were apparently "the People," who years before had crossed the Mississippi, "the big water," and had made their way eastward to Green Bay into a region occupied almost entirely by Algonquian tribes. Hoping doubtless to impress these children of the forest with his supernatural power, Nicollet fired his pistols in the air and greatly astonished and alarmed them. It is no wonder that "the women and children fled, at the sight of a man who carried thunder in both hands; for thus they called the two pistols that he held." 15 This is the scene pictured in the mural painting (Figure A). There is no authority for the presence of the white man shown just behind Nicollet; otherwise, the representation is fairly accurate.

After this regal and belligerent display, Nicollet, concealing whatever disappointment he may have felt at the absence of Chinese nobles, doffed his oriental garments, made friendly overtures to the natives, and was received by them most hospitably.16 When the news of his coming reached the neighboring tribes, some four or five thousand men assembled to meet the Manitou, "the wonderful man." Weeks of festivity followed during which Nicollet doubtless partook liberally of the many feasts of badger, venison, and wild rice given in his honor. Then, after journeying some ninety miles up the Fox river and enterinto treaties with a half dozen of the tribes roundabout, he returned to Canada.

Such is the story of the first explorer of the Northwest territory. In addition to its romantic interest, the expedition was important in promoting the expansion of France in the New World. It is also significant as one of the many illustrations of the way which the lure of the Orient drew men into the wilderness and thus helped open America to European civilization.

in

It will be noticed that no group is planned for the Indians of the Southeast. Culturally, these Indians belong to the Caribbean and Central American region; they will be provided for accordingly.

Milwaukee Museum, descriptive placard; Farrand, Basis of American History.

The most important of the other tribes in the upper lake region were the Miami, Potawatomi, Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo, Menominee-all of Algonquian stock-and the Winnebago of Souian stock. The culture of each of these tribes,

while in Wisconsin at least, was largely dominated by wild rice, which grows abundantly in this region. The chief authority on the wild rice gathering Indians is the excellent monograph by Jenks, "The Wild Rice Gatherers of the Upper Lakes," published in the Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, part 2.

4

Legends of the Northwest, 58-59; quoted by Jenks, op. cit., 1057.

The present tense is used because the Indians in the reservations of Wisconsin continue to harvest wild rice, According to all accounts, they employ much the same methods their ancestors used centuries ago. Jenks bases much of his monograph on personal investigations among these Indians. According to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, the Indians in Wisconsin, living on reservations in 1920 numbered 10,319 out of a total population of 2,632,067.

'If allowed to ripen naturally, the rice falls into the water at the slightest shock; hence the tying into sheaves to hold the grain while ripening. According to Hennepin, however, the reason for tying the stalks was to prevent the birds from devouring all the grain. Other authorities say the purpose was to make the harvesting easier. Sometimes the sheaves are made by merely twisting the stalks together. Naturally, wide variations in harvesting occur. In some cases, the entire fruit head is cut off and taken to the shore for threshing; in others, the stalks are cut in bunches half the size of a sheaf of wheat and brought to shore. In a few instances the men and not the women gather the grain. Jenks, loc. cit.; S. A. Barrett, personal observation.

'Jenks, 1066. Variations in procedure appear constantly. For example, sticks like flails or churn dashers are sometimes used for threshing.

• Ibid.

9

Ibid., 1086.

10 Ibid.

11 S. A. Barrett, conversation with the writer. 12 Jenks, 1113.

13 Wild rice was of much value to the early white settlers. As early as 1766, Carver writes of it: "In future periods it will be of great service to the infant colonies." In 1805, Pike describes the stores of the Northwest Company's fort at Leech Lake as including "500 bushels of wild rice." In 1820, the Detroit Gazette says: "The fish and the wild rice are the chief sustenance of the traders, and without them the trade could scarcely be carried on." Jenks, 1101 et seq.

14 "Algonkin" was the name of an Indian tribe of Algonquian stock which lived in the vicinity of the Ottawa river. 15 Jesuit Relations, XXIII, 279.

16 According to the account in the Jesuit Relations, loc. cit., upon which the above description is based, it seems that Nicollet made overtures to the natives two days before he landed at Red Banks, Wisconsin. If so, the display with the pistols and the mandarin's robe portrayed in the painting of the exhibit, was doubtless to impress the Indians a result secure a with his splendor and might, and as successful outcome in his mission of extending the authority of France.

Mohandas Karamchad Ghandi, Indian Nationalist leader, is no vulgar agitator. Very possibly he may rank as the most remarkable man in the Eastern World and certainly he is the most dangerous foe the British have ever found in India. Ghandi was educated in England where he studied law and other things. He steeped himself in our literature and

learned to write and speak perfect English. Even as a student he lived on rice and water and this in spite of the fact that he was a very rich man. After practicing law for a short period in Bombay, Ghandi went to South Africa when the Boer War broke out and there organized an Indian Red Cross, built a native hospital in Natal, and led his countrymen in stretcher