must concur, in order to form a completely instructive historian.

524. The first requisites of historical narration, are clearness, order, and due connection. To attain these, the historian must be completely master of his subject; he must see the whole as at one view; and comprehend the chain and dependence of all its parts, that he may introduce every thing in its proper place; that he may lead us smoothly along the tract of affairs which are recorded, and may always give us the satisfaction of seeing how one event arises out of another. Without this, there can be neither pleasure nor instruction, in reading history.

Obs. Much for this end will depend on the observance of that unity in the general plan and conduct, which has already been recommended. Much too will depend on the proper management of transitions. This forms one of the chief ornaments of this kind of writing, and is one of the most difficult in execution. Nothing tries an historian's abilities more, than so to lay his train beforehand, as to make us pass naturally and agreeably from one part of his subject to another; to employ no clumsy and awkward junctures; and to contrive ways and means of forming some union among transactions, which seem to be most widely separated from one another.

525. In the next place, as history is a very dignified species of composition, gravity must always be maintained in the narration. There must be no meanness nor vulgarity in the style; no quaint, nor colloquial phrases; no affectation of pertness, or of wit. The smart, or the sneering manner of telling a story, is inconsistent with the historical cha

racter.

Obs. On occasions where a light and ludicrous anecdote is proper to be recorded, it is generally better to throw it into a note than to hazard becoming too familiar by introducing it into the body of the work.

526. But an historian may possess these qualities of being perspicuous, distinct, and grave, and may notwithstanding be a dull writer; in which case we shall reap little benefit from his labours.

Obs. We shall read him without pleasure; or, most probably, we shall soon give over reading him at all He must therefore study to render his narration interesting; which is the quality that chiefly distinguishes a writer of genius and eloquence.

527. Two things are especially conducive to this; the first is, a just medium, in the conduct of narration, between a rapid or crowded recital of facts, and a prolix detail. The former embarrasses and the latter tires us.

Obs. 1. An historian that would interest us, must know when to be

concise, and where he ought to enlarge; passing concisely over slight and unimportant events, but dwelling on such as are striking and considerable in their nature, or pregnant with consequences; preparing beforehand our attention to them, and bringing them forth into the most full and conspicuous light.

2. The next thing he must attend to, is a proper selection of the circumstances belonging to those events which he chooses to relate fully. General facts make a slight impression on the mind. It is by means of circumstances and particulars properly chosen, that a narration becomes interesting and affecting to the reader. These give life, body, and colouring to the recital of facts, and enable us to behold them as present, and passing before our eyes. It is this employment of circumstances, in narration, that is properly termed historical painting.

528. The ancients employed one embellishment of history which the moderns have laid aside, namely, orations, which, on weighty occasions, they put into the mouths of some of their chief personages.

Obs. 1. By means of these, they diversified their history; they conveyed both moral and political instruction; and, by the opposite arguments which were employed, they gave us a view of the sentiments of different parties.

2. Orations may be an embellishment to history; such might also poetical compositions be, when introduced under the name of some of the personages mentioned in the narration, who were known to have possessed poetical talents. But neither can the one nor the other find a proper place in history.

3. Instead of inserting formal orations, the method adopted by later writers seems better and more natural; that of the historian, on some great occasion, delivering, in his own person, the sentiments and reasonings of the opposite parties, or the substance of what was understood to be spoken in some public assembly; which he may do without the liberty of fiction.

529. The drawing of characters is one of the most splendid, and, at the same time, one of the most difficult ornaments of historical composition. For characters are generally considered as professed exhibitions of fine writing; and an historian who seeks to shine in them, is frequently in danger of carrying refinement to excess, from a desire of appearing very profound and penetrating. He brings together so many contrasts, and subtile oppositions of qualities, that we are rather dazzled with sparkling expressions, than entertained with any clear conception of a human character.

Obs. A writer who would characterize in an instructive and masterly manner, should be simple in his style, and should avoid all quaintness and affectation; at the same time, not contenting himself with giving us general outlines only, but descending into those peculiarities which mark a character in its most strong and distinctive features. The Greek historians sometimes give eulogiums, but rarely draw full and professed characters. The two ancient authors who have laboured this part of historical composition most, are Sallust and Tacitus.

530. As history is a species of writing designed for the instruction of mankind, sound morality should always reign in it. Both in describing characters, and in relating transactions, the author should always shew himself to be on the side of virtue.

Obs. 1. To deliver moral instruction in a formal manner, falls not within his province; but both as a good man, and as a good writer, we expect that he should evince sentiments of respect for virtue, and an indignation at flagrant vice.

2. To appear neutral and indifferent with respect to good and bad characters, and to affect a crafty and political, rather than a moral turn of thought, will, besides other bad effects, derogate greatly from the weight of historical composition, and will render the strain of it much more cold and uninteresting. We are always most interested in the transactions which are relating, when our sympathy is awakened by the story, when we become engaged in the fate of the actors. But this effect can never be produced by a writer who is deficient in sensibility and moral feeling.

531. MEMOIRS denote a sort of composition, in which an author does not pretend to give full information of all the facts respecting the period of which he writes, but only to relate what he himself had access to know, or what he was concerned in, or what illustrates the conduct of some person, or the circumstances of some transaction, which he chooses for his subject.

Obs. 1. From a writer of memoirs, therefore, is not expected the same profound research, or enlarged information, as from a writer of history. He is not subject to the same laws of unvarying dignity and gravity. He may talk freely of himself; he may descend into the most familiar anecdotes. What is chiefly required of him is, that he be sprightly and interesting; and, especially, that he inform us of things that are useful and curious; by conveying to us some sort of knowledge worth the acquiring.

2. This is a species of writing very enticing to such as love to write concerning themselves, and conceive every transaction in which they had a share, to be of singular importance. There is no wonder, therefore, that a nation so sprightly as the French should, for more than two centuries past, have been pouring forth a whole flood of memoirs ; the greatest part of which are little better than agreeable trifles.

3. The memoirs of the Duke of Sully, in the state in which they are now given to the public, have great merit, and deserve to be mentioned with particular praise. No memoirs approach more nearly to the usefulness and the dignity of a full, authentic history. They have the peculiar advantage of giving us a beautiful display of two of the most illustrious characters which history presents; Sully himself, one of the ablest and most incorrupt ministers, and Henry IV., one of the greatest and most amiable princes of modern times. Dr. Blair says, that he knows few books more full of virtue and of good sense, than Sully's Memoirs; few, therefore, more proper to form both the heads and the hearts of such as are designed for public business, and action, in the world.

532. BIOGRAPHY, or the writing of lives, is a very useful kind of composition; less formal and stately than history; but to the bulk of readers, perhaps, no less instructive; as it affords them the opportunity of seeing the characters and tempers, the virtues and failings, of eminent men fully displayed; and admits them into a more thorough and intimate acquaintance with such persons, than history generally allows.

Obs. 1. For a writer of lives may descend, with propriety, into minute circumstances, and familiar incidents. It is expected that he should give the private, as well as the public life, of the person whose actions he records; nay, it is from private life, from familiar, domestic, and seemingly trivial occurrences, that we often receive most light into the real character.

2. In this species of writing, Plutarch has no small merit; and to him we stand indebted for much of the knowledge that we possess, concerning several of the most eminent personages of antiquity. His matter is, indeed, better than his manner; as he cannot lay claim to any peculiar beauty or elegance. His judgment too, and his accuracy, have sometimes been taxed; but whatever defects of this kind he may be liable to, his Lives of Eminent Men will always be considered as a valuable treasure of instruction.

3. He is remarkable for being one of the most humane of all the writers of antiquity; less dazzled than many of them are, with the exploits of valour and ambition; and fond of displaying his great men to us in the more gentle lights of retirement and private life.

533. A very great improvement has, of late years, been introduced into historical composition; namely, a more particular attention than was formerly given to laws, customs, commerce, religion, literature, and every other subject that tends to shew the spirit and genius of nations.

Obs. 1. It is now understood to be the business of an able historian, to exhibit manners, as well as facts and events; and, assuredly, whatever displays the state and life of mankind, in different periods, and illustrates the progress of the human mind, is more useful and interesting than the detail of sieges and battles.

2. The person to whom we are most indebted for the introduction of this improvement into history, is the celebrated M. Voltaire, whose genius has shone with surprising lustre, in many different parts of lit

erature.

CHAPTER VII.

OF PHILOSOPHICAL WRITING, DIALOGUE, AND EPISTOLARY

CORRESPONDENCE.

534. PHILOSOPHICAL writing. As the professed object of philosophy is to convey instruction, it is manifest that every philosophical writer ought to study the utmost perspicuity with respect both to single words, and the construction of sentences. Beyond mere perspiculty, strict accuracy and precision are required in a philosophical writer. He should employ no words of uncertain meaning, no loose nor indeterminate expressions; and should avoid using words which are seemingly synonymous, without carefully attending to the variation which they make upon the idea.

Illus. 1. To be clear and precise, then, are requisites which we have a title to demand from évery philosophical writer. He may possess these qualities, and be at the same time a very dry writer. He should, therefore, study some degree of embellishment, in order to render his composition pleasing and graceful.

2. One of the most agreeable, and one of the most useful embellishments which a philosopher can employ, consists in illustrations taken from historical facts, and the characters of men. All moral and political subjects naturally afford scope for these; and wherever there is room for employing them, they seldom fail of producing a happy effect. They diversify the composition; they relieve the mind from the fatigue of mere reasoning, and at the same time raise more full conviction than any reasonings produce for they take philosophy out of the abstract, and give weight to speculation, by shewing its connection with real life, and the actions of mankind.

535. Philosophical writing admits, besides, of a polished, a neat, and an elegant style. It admits of metaphors, comparisons, and all the calm figures of speech, by which an author may convey his sense to the understanding with clearness and force, at the same time that he entertains the imagination.

Obs. He must take great care, however, that all his ornaments be of the chastest kind, never partaking of the florid or the tumid; which is so unpardonable in a professed philosopher, that it is much better for him to err on the side of naked simplicity, than on that of too much ornament.

Illus. In English, Locke's celebrated Treatise on Human Understanding, may be pointed out as a model, on the one hand, of the greatest clearness and distinctness of philosophical style, with very little approach to ornament; Lord Shaftesbury's writings, on the other hand, exhibit philosophy dressed up with all the ornament which it can ad