deed in every battle of the campaign, his division was foremost in the very heart of danger. On the 23d of July, Gen. Grant promoted him to the command of the 10th army corps, in the Army of the James. Early in October he was taken sick with malarious fever, and his constitution was so seriously impaired by the great exertions he had made at the time of the rebel attack on Kautz's cavalry corps, being then ill in bed, that it could not withstand the onset of the disease. He was brought home to Philadelphia, and though almost in a dying state, insisted on being borne to the polls (the State election being in progress) to vote before he was carried home. He was greatly esteemed and beloved both in the army and in Philadelphia.

BLANCHARD, THOMAS, an American mechanic and inventor, born in Sutton, Worcester County, Mass., June 24, 1788, died in Boston, April 16, 1864. At the age of 18 years he joined his brother, who was engaged in the manufacture of tacks by hand, a slow and difficult process. After six years of study and experiment he perfected a tack machine which would turn out 500 tacks per minute better made than they had ever been by hand. Having sold this machine and the right to make it, he next turned his attention to constructing a machine for turning and finishing gun-barrels by a single operation. He overcame the difficulty of finishing the octagon portion of the barrel at the breech, by changing the action of his lathe to vibratory motion at a given point. The invention of a lathe for turning gunstocks, afterward extended to the turning of all kinds of irregular forms, was his next achievement, and this was really one of the most remarkable inventions of the century. (For description of its mode of operation, see BLANCHARD, THOMAS, in New American Cyclopedia, vol. iii., p. 331.) He subsequently became interested in the construction of railroads and locomotives, and made numerous improvements in both. He also contrived boats which would ascend rapids, or rivers having strong currents, invented machines for bending heavy timbers into any required form, machines for cutting and folding envelopes at a single operation, and morticing machines. In all, he took out between 20 and 30 patents, but realized but little from most of them.

BRAZIL, an Empire in South America. It is, in extent of territory, the third country of the world, being exceeded only by China and Russia. The area is estimated at 147,624 geographical or 3,100,104 English square miles. The population, according to the last census of 1856, was 7,677,800, being, on an average, only three persons a square mile. About 2,500,000 of the population are negro slaves, and about 500,000 native Indians. A very extensive mixture of white, the negro, and the Indian races has. taken place, and the greater part of the population consists of mixed breeds, which are distinguished as Mulattoes (offspring of a white

The actual income of the Empire during the years 1860-'63 was as follows: 1860-'61, 53,350,905 milreis; 1861-'62, 55,857,726; 1862-'63, 50,724,034. The budget of expenditures for the and the receipts at 52,000,000; deficit 4,588,year 1864-'65 was estimated at 56,588,818, 818. The total amount of the public debt of Brazil in 1863 was as follows, according to the official statement of the Minister of Finance:

1. Foreign Funded Debt, on Dec. 31st, 1863: Loan of the year 1824..

66

66

66

1829.

£2,358,600 825,200

862,000

890,000

427,000

8,855,800

2. Internal Funded Debt on March 31st, 1863, 76,777,400 milreis.

In the army estimates for 1863-'64, the strength of the regular force is fixed at 14,000 men, and in extraordinary cases at 25,000, and the strength of the marine troops at from 3,000 to 5,000. The navy, in 1863, consisted of 16 sailing vessels and 22 steamers.

The new session of the Brazilian Parliament was opened on the 9th of May by a speech from the throne. The Emperor announced that in no part of the Empire had the public order been disturbed. The English Government having accepted the mediation of Portugal for reestablishing the diplomatic relations between Brazil and England, the Brazilian Government had likewise accepted this offer. The relations of Brazil with other Powers were unchanged. The continuance of the civil war in Uruguay, and the complaints made by Brazilian residents in that State, had suggested to the Brazilian Government that, without violating its neutrality in the civil war of Uruguay, it ought to send a commissioner to the Government of Montevideo to claim for the Brazilian residents a compliance with those guarantees which the laws of Uruguay grant to foreign residents.

Among the laws needing amendment, the Emperor referred to that of Dec. 3, 1841, on magistracies; that on the national guard; the mortgage law; the electoral law; that concerning the administration of provinces and municipalities. The Emperor also recommended that provisions be made for the introduction

of an efficient system of recruiting, and of a military code, provisions for meeting the deficit, and the prolongation of the Don Pedro Rail

way.

Though a satisfactory arrangement of the difficulty between Brazil and Great Britain was not reached during the year 1864, the attention of the Brazilian people was divertfrom it by the threatening aspect which the relations of the Empire to the Republic of Uruguay assumed." The Government of Brazil maintained that the claims of Brazilian residents in Uruguay for indemnification for losses which they had suffered in the civil war of Uruguay (See URUGUAY), had not been properly considered. It began early in 1864 to show marked sympathy with the chief of the insurgents, General Flores, and to concentrate troops on the frontier of Uruguay. On August 4, Brazil presented to the Government of Uruguay an ultimatum, and demanded a reply within six days. On October 11, the commander of the Brazilian fleet, in a circular despatch addressed to diplomatic agents residing in Montevideo, announced his intention to search all the vessels of foreign powers to prevent the landing of contraband of war. This measure called forth a joint protest from the ministers of England, France, Italy, Spain, and Portugal, as Brazil had not yet formally declared war against Uruguay, and, in particular, had not notified the foreign powers of the blockade of the ports of Uruguay. The conduct of Brazil produced in the adjacent States the universal belief that it was her intention to seize Uruguay. In such a scheme the State of Paraguay and the upper provinces of the Argentine Republic are deeply concerned, as the possession of the mouth of the Uruguay River would make their trade, to a large extent, dependent upon the Brazilian Govern

ment.

The President of Paraguay, consequently, on August 30th, issued an earnest protest against the threats uttered by Brazil against Uruguay. When it became clear that Brazil persisted in her policy, and had marched troops into the territory of Uruguay, the President of Paraguay declared war against Brazil. A despatch from Mr. Seward to the United States Minister in Paraguay expressed sympathy with the policy of the President of that State. The excitement in the provinces Corrientes and Entre Rios of the Argentine Republic was also so great, that it was expected that they would support Paraguay, even if the Central Government of the Confederation should remain on intimate terms with Brazil. On the progress of the war, see URUGUAY.

On October 6th the Confederate privateer Florida was captured in the Bay of Bahia by the U. S. steamer Wachusetts. Intelligence of the fact reached Rio Janeiro on the 14th of

October. A council of ministers, presided over by the Emperor, was at once held. The Minister for Foreign Affairs, on the 13th of

October, addressed a note to the Minister of the United States, detailing to him the facts in the case, and expressing a belief that he would hasten to give the Imperial Government assurances that the Government of the Union would attend to the just remonstrances of the Empire. (See DIPLOMATIC CORRESPONDENCE.)

On the escape of the Wachusetts with the Florida from the port of Bahia becoming known to the Brazilian Government at Rio Janeiro, that Government at once removed the President of the Province of Bahia, and ordered to the metropolis the officers of its naval squadron and of the forts in that port, for the purpose of submitting to a court of inquiry whether they had used due exertion in repelling this violation of the territorial waters of the Empire, and in attempting to prevent the escape of the Federal ship-of-war with its capture. In addition, the Brazilian Government issued orders inhibiting the admission of the Wachusetts to any port of the Empire.

For several years the Government of Brazil has endeavored to encourage European immigration. It has offered liberal inducements to settlers, and-as the stream of emigration comes mostly from the Protestant countries of Europe-it has promised to Protestant settlers not only freedom of their religious worship, but the support of their ministers, churches, and schools. A considerable number of colonies have consequently been established by emigrants, and Brazil is at present the only country in South or Central America which has a number of Protestant congregations. On the progress and present condition of these congregations interesting information has been recently furnished by a German Protestant missionary, from which the following are a few extracts:

The oldest and largest Protestant congregation in Brazil is the English congregation of Rio Janeiro. Its origin dates from the beginning of the present century, and the number of its members is from 4,000 to 5,000. There are other English Protestant congregations at Bahia and Pernambuco.

The American Presbyterians have likewise a congregation at Bahia. They also sustain missionaries in Rio Janeiro and in the city and Province of Sao Paulo.

The German Protestant congregation in Rio Janeiro was established in 1826. For sixteen years the congregation, which has now also a school and numbers about 2,500 members, has become selfsupporting. The Province of Rio Janeiro has, besides the congregation in the capital, two others at New Friburg and Petropolis. They have both a church and a school, but have suffered greatly from the failure of the Brazilian Government to fulfil the

contract entered into with the colonists. The con

congregations at Santa Isabel, with about 400 members; Santa Leopoldina, with 700 members; Rio Novo, with 90 members, and Philadelphia. There is also a congregation of Hollanders, which is served by a German pastor.

In the province of Sao Paulo there are German Protestants at 5 different places; but very little has as yet been done in point of organization.

The province of Santa Catharina has 4 German eongregations-Donna Francisca, with 3,000 Protestants; Blumenan, with 2,000, and the two adjoining colonies, Theresopolis and Santa Isabel, together with 1,100 Protestants. The largest Protestant German congregation of Brazil is at Sao Leopoldo, in the province Rio Grande de Sul. Sao Leopoldo consists of several colonies, situated at some distance from each other on a road cut into the forest, and has a population of more than 12,000 inhabitants, and 3 Protestant ministers.

Besides the places enumerated, there are a number

of others which have the nucleus of Protestant congregations. Altogether, there are in Brazil 24 pastors (3 English, 5 Americans, 16 Germans) in 25 congregations (3 English, 5 American, 17 German).

BRINE, THE UTILIZATION OF.-When fresh meat has been sprinkled with salt for a few days, it is found to be swimming in brine. Fresh meat contains more than three-fourths of its weight of water, which is retained in it as in a sponge. But it has not the power to retain brine to that extent, and, in similar circumstances, absorbs only about half as much saturated brine as water; under the action of salt, therefore, flesh allowed a portion of its water to flow out. This expelled water, as might naturally be supposed, is saturated with the soluble, nutritive ingredients of flesh, which is, in fact, juice of flesh-soup-with all its valuable and restorative properties. In the large curing establishments of cities considerable quantities of this brine are produced and thrown away as useless. A process of dialysis has recently been successfully applied to this material for the removal of the salts of brine and for the production at a cheap rate of pure fresh extract of meat. A Mr. Whitelaw, of Glasgow, has introduced the process with success.

The brine, after being filtered to free it from any particles of flesh or other mechanical impurities it might contain, is then subjected to the operation of dialysis. The vessels or bags in which the operations are conducted may be made of various materials and of many shapes, but whatever might be their material or shape they are called "dialysers." Such an apparatus as the following would be found to answer the purpose: A square vat, made of a frame-work of iron, filled up with sheets of skin or parchment-paper in such a way as to be water-tight, and strengthened if necessary by stays or straps of metal. The sides, ends, and bottom being composed of this soft, dialysing material, exposed a great surface to the action of the water contained in an outer vat, in which the dialyser was placed. A series of ox-bladders, fitted with stop-cocks, or guttapercha mouth-tubes, and plugs, and hung on rods stretching across and into vats of water,

is found to be a very cheap and effective arrangement. Skins of animals may also be employed, either as open bags or closed, and fitted with stop-cocks, or bags of double cloth, with a layer of soft gelatine interspersed between them. Other arrangements will readily suggest themselves, and may be adopted according to circumstances. But supposing the bladder arrangement were taken, which will be found practically the best, being cheap, easily managed, and exposing a great surface to the dialytic action. The bladders are filled with the filtered brine by means of fillers, and hung in rows on poles across, and suspended into vats of water. The water in those vats is renewed once a day, or oftener if required, and at the end of the third or fourth day, according to the size of the bladders employed, almost all the common salt and nitre of the brine has been removed, and the liquid contained in the bladders is pure juice of flesh in a fresh and wholesome condition. The juice as obtained from the "dialysers," might now be employed in making rich soups without any further preparation, or it might be concentrated by evaporation to the state of solid extract of meat. The liquid from the dialysers might be treated in several ways. It might be evaporated in an enamelled vessel to a more or less concentrated state, or to dryness, and in these various conditions packed in tins or jars for sale. It might be concentrated at a temperature of 120°, by means of a vacuum-pan or other suitable contrivance, so as to retain the albumen and other matters in a soluble form. Again, the more or less concentrated liquid might be used along with flour used in the manufacture of meat biscuits. The products are all highly nutritive, portable, and admirably adapted for the use of hospitals, for an army in the field, and for ships' stores. The dialysis of brine might be conducted in salt water, so as to remove the greater portion of its salt, and the process completed in a small quantity of fresh rain or other water. In this way ships at sea might economize their brine, and so restore to the meat in a great measure the nutritive power that it had lost in the process of salting. Thus, then, Mr. Whitelaw_obtained an extract of flesh at a cheap rate, from a hitherto waste material. Two gallons of brine yielded one pound of solid extract, containing the coagulated albumen and coloring matter. For the production of the same directly from meat, something like twenty pounds of lean beef would be required. The quantity of brine annually wasted was very great. He believed he was considerably under the truth when he said that in Glasgow alone sixty thousand gallons were thrown away yearly. If they estimated one gallon as equal to seven pounds of meat in soup-producing power, then this was equal to a yearly waste of one hundred and eighty-seven tons of meat without bone. Estimating the meat as worth sixpence per pound, this amounted to a loss

of £10,472. In this way the waste over the country must be very great. In the great American curing establishments the brine wasted must be something enormous, as he found that in eight of the Federal States four million pigs were slaughtered and cured during the season of 1863.

BROWN, Sir WILLIAM, a British merchant, born at Ballymena, County Antrim, Ireland, March 5, 1784, died at Richmond Hill, near Liverpool, March 3, 1864. Early in the present century he migrated with his father, Alexander Brown, to Baltimore, and received his commercial education in the counting-house of what eventually became the firm of Alexander Brown and Sons, linen importers of that city. In 1809 William returned to England and established a branch of the firm in Liverpool. Within a few years additional branches were established in New York and Philadelphia, and the business, assuming by degrees a more general character, was finally confined principally to banking transactions. The reputation of the house for sagacity and probity and its known connections with both sides of the Atlantic, made it a most important medium for business communications between the United States and Great Britain. During the commercial crisis of 1837 the firm held American bills for a very large amount, including nearly £800,000 of protested paper, and had at the same time to meet engagements in England amounting to £1,950,000. Their own resources were, to a considerable extent, locked up in American securities, not immediately available, and during the panic prevailing on both sides of the Atlantie it was impossible to draw bills or to remit specie to England. But as the suspension of the firm, even for a limited time, would have greatly aggravated the commercial embarrassments of the period, the English branch succeeded in effecting a loan from the Bank of England for the whole amount of its engagements in that country, depositing securities for the advance to the amount of £5,000,000. The whole sum borrowed from the Bank was repaid in six months, and thenceforth the house enjoyed an unsurpassed reputation for business integrity both in Europe and America. In 1844 Mr Brown unsuccessfully contested the representation of South Lancashire in Parliament, but in 1846, and again in the general election of 1847, he was returned without opposition, and continued to hold his seat until 1859. He was a constant attendant on the business of the House of Commons, and though not a frequent speaker, was considered a leading authority on questions of finance and commerce. In 1850 he carried on through the columns of the "Pennsylvanian" newspaper a correspondence with Mr. Meredith, United States Secretary of the Treasury, and Abbott Lawrence, in defence of Free Trade. During the latter part of his life he was much interested in the establishment of the Museum and Free Library of Liverpool, a large portion of

the expense of which was defrayed by him. He was also a handsome contributor to the hospitals and other public charities of the city, and in the famine in Ireland, in 1847, and on other occasions, showed much philanthropic zeal. In 1852 he was appointed Deputy-Lieutenant of Lancashire, and during 1863 he served as high sheriff. About a year before his death he was created a baronet. Though so many years had elapsed since his departure from the United States, he never ceased to feel a warm interest in that country, with which his business relations always remained close, and was often its defender against unjust aspersions. The progress of the existing civil war seemed to make no change in his friendly feelings to the American people, and he is known to have liberally aided the efforts inaugurated by the latter in 1862 to send food to the suffering Lancashire operatives.

BULLIONS, Rev. PETER, D. D., an American clergyman, teacher, and author, born at Moss Side, about five miles west of Perth, Scotland, in December, 1791, died at Troy, New York, Feb. 13, 1864. His father, though in but moderate circumstances, kept him constantly at school till he was sixteen years of age, though most of the time he worked upon his father's little farm morning and evening. The next two and a half years were devoted entirely to agricultural labors, and his father was desirous that he should be apprenticed to a mechanical business. He himself, however, was very anxious to obtain a liberal education, and commenced preparing for college at a school near his father's. In the autumn of 1810 he entered the University of Edinburgh, and took a three years' course, supporting himself partly by his previous earnings and partly by teaching. In September, 1813, immediately after leaving college, he commenced the study of theology under Professor Paxton of the Associate Church, and continued under his instruction for four years, sustaining himself by teaching during his vacations. The death of his father in 1813 threw upon him the whole charge of the family, and the four years of his theological course were consequently years of intense labor and anxiety. In June, 1817, he was licensed to preach by the Presbytery of Edinburgh, and three weeks later married and embarked for New York. After spending a few months as a temporary supply to churches in Washington County, N. Y., and its vicinity, Mr. Bullions was ordained and settled in March, 1818, as pastor of the Presbyterian Church at Argyle, in that county. After a remarkably successful pastorate of six years, his health, impaired by the excessive physical exertion of attending to his duties in a congregation so widely scattered, declined so much that he was compelled to resign. In November, 1824, he accepted the professorship of languages in the Albany Academy, one of the best and most liberally endowed institutions of its class in the country. He held this professorship for twenty-four years, resigning in 1848. In 1832

he commenced preaching in Troy as a stated supply, and on the organization of the United Presbyterian congregation in that city in 1834, became its pastor, and remained in that connection until 1852, when he resigned and visited Europe. On his return he resided for some time in New York, where, in the summer of 1853, his wife died. In December of that year, having returned to Troy, he was again installed as pastor of the United Presbyterian congregation, and continued in the pastorate till his death. He was an able preacher, adhering firmly to his own views, yet wholly free from bigotry or intolerance; a useful and efficient pastor, greatly beloved by his people. As a teacher he was highly successful, alike from his exact and critical knowledge of the classics, and the thoroughness and strictness with which he trained and instructed his pupils. He prepared at different times during his long career as a teacher, a very complete series of text-books for classical instruction, which ex

hibited his familiarity with the Greek and Latin authors and his indomitable industry. These works have come into very extensive use, and have received the sanction and approval of many eminent scholars and instructors. The following are the principal works published by him: "Practical Lessons in English Grammar and Composition;" "Principles of English Grammar;" "Introduction to Analytical English Grammar;"" Analytical and Practical English Grammar;" "Progressive Exercises in Analysis and Parsing:" "Principles of Latin Grammar;" ""Latin Reader;" "Exercises in Latin Composition, and Key; ""Cæsar's Commentaries, with Notes and References;" "Sallust, with Notes and References;" "Cicero's Ora'tions, with Notes and References; "LatinEnglish Dictionary, with Synonyms;" "First Lessons in Greek;" "Principles of Greek Grammar:" "Greek Reader, with Introduction on Greek Idioms, Greek Lexicon, &c.;" "Memoir of Rev. Alexander Bullions, D. D."

99 66

CALCULATING MACHINE. A machine of this kind is in use at the Dudley Observatory in Albany. It is the only one ever completed; and although based on the same mathematical theory as the one contemplated by Mr. Babbage, it is yet essentially different in its mechanism. It is well known that Mr. Charles E. Babbage was the first to attempt the construction of a difference engine; but in consequence of some misunderstanding between himself and the British Government, under whose patronage the work was carried on, it was never completed. About 1834 or 1836 Mr. Scheutz, a printer at Stockholm, heard of Mr. Babbage's machine, and at one conceived the idea of building one himself. This machine is the product of his labors continued through nearly twenty years, and was purchased for the Observatory in 1856, and put in operation for a short time in 1858.

Suppose it is desired to tabulate the series of square numbers beginning with unity. Let us first see how these numbers can be produced by means of successive differences. We arrange them for convenience in the following table:

digits, corresponding with a like number of divisions on their surfaces. If the number 1 on the upper wheel, 3 on the second wheel, and 2 on the third wheel, be brought opposite a fixed or zero point; and the nature of these wheels be such that when set in motion by a lever from right to left, the second wheel adds its number to the upper wheel, and by a motion of the lever from left to right, the third wheel adds its number to the second (being in this case constant and always equal to 2); from this arrangement we shall be able to compute a table of square numbers.

We begin by moving the lever from right to left; when 3 (the number on the second wheel) will be added to 1 (the number on the upper wheel), making 4, the square of 2. On moving the lever back, 2 on the third wheel is added to 3 on the second wheel, making 5. Moving our lever back again from right to left, 5 is added to 4 on the upper wheel, making 9, the square of 3. Repeating the process, we next get 7 on the second wheel, which, added to 9 on the upper, makes 16, the square of 4.

Having given the fundamental principles on which the machine is constructed, we will add a few particulars. This machine can be used to 15 places of figures, of which 8 places are printed, at the time of making the computation. Thirty seconds is the time necessary for a complete result.

Before starting the machine for any computation, it is necessary to set the proper wheels, after which it needs no further attention; for so long as the last order of differences is constant, it will continue to produce the required numbers. Thus for producing a table of squares, it is only necessary to give the machine three