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The whole archipelago, indeed, forms part of a great volcanic area extending into the very centre of Asia. These eruptive forces must have operated in remote ages with inconceivable violence, detaching masses of land from the continent, shattering islands into fragments, and throwing the whole into disorder. Of the fearful energy with which these subterranean forces have manifested themselves, even in modern times, the great eruption of Tomboro, in the island of Sumbawa, about 200 miles from the eastern extremity of Java, is a notable example. In 1815 this volcano, which had been for some time in a state of smouldering activity, burst forth with the most tremendous violence in the month of April, and did not cease to eject lava until July. The sound of the incessant explosions was heard in Sumatra, distant 970 geographical miles in a direct line; and at Ternate, in the opposite direction, at a distance of 720 miles. Out of a population of 12,000 in the province of Tomboro, only twentysix individuals survived. On the side of Java, the ashes were carried to a distance of 300 miles, and 217 towards Celebes; and the floating cinders to the westward of Sumatra formed a mass two feet thick, and several miles in extent, through which ships with difficulty forced their way. The finest particles were transported to the islands of Amboyna and Banda, 800 miles east from the site of the volcano; and the area over which the volcanic effects extended was 1000 English miles in circumference, including the whole of the Molucca Islands, Java, and a considerable portion of Celebes, Sumatra, and Borneo.*

But what are the true boundaries of this great archipelago? Geographical science is somewhat arbitrary in its classification. Where is the line of demarcation to be drawn if there is none apparently traced by nature between the different groups ranging from Ceylon to New Guinea? For even Ceylon, it has been recently suggested, possesses far more affinity with the islands to the east than with the continent of which it would seem, from its position, to have once formed a part. Sir Emerson Tennent, in his admirable and exhaustive work on this beautiful island, considers it erroneous to regard it as a prolongation of the great Indian mountain-chain, although he admits that in its geological elements there is a similarity between the southern extremity of India and the elevated portions of Ceylon, while stating that there are many important particulars in which the specific differences are irreconcileable with the notion of any previous continuity. The flora and fauna of the island, it is said, suggest a distinction between it and the Indian continent. Without at present discussing this

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interesting subject, we may observe that the climatic conditions arising from the insular character of the country, and the consequent exposure to the influence of the sea, may go far to account for most of the specific differences between its flora and that of the continent of India; and that if it possesses some botanical affinities with islands of the further east, they may be accounted for by atmospherical influences. Thus the nutmeg and the mangostein, two plants peculiar to the Eastern Archipelago, have been introduced with singular success at Ceylon, while their cultivation has entirely failed in Bengal. The true cinnamon of Ceylon, again, is not a native plant of any island of the Asiatic archipelago; but most of the large islands produce a small species of little value, although Ceylon cinnamon has been cultivated with success in Java and in the British settlements in the Straits of Malacca. We must, therefore, reserve for future consideration Sir Emerson's theory that this island, separated from the Indian continent only by a narrow strait, ought to be regarded as the centre of a geographical circle, possessing within itself forms whose allied species radiate far into the temperate regions, as well as into Africa, Australia, and the isles of the Eastern Archipelago.

But, whatever may be its natural boundaries, the archipelago, if its islands were combined, would undoubtedly constitute a mass of land forming the Terra Australis which ancient geographers imagined to exist, and which they conceived necessary for the balance of the world. The Eastern Archipelago is, however, limited by modern geography to the boundaries before indicated; and if the disruptive forces in these regions have been formerly predominant, the creative and constructive power is now the most active. The zoophyte is adding silently and incessantly to the number of these island-groups; coral-reefs are constantly emerging from the waters; seeds, deposited by birds, or wafted by winds, quickly vegetate; verdure spreads over the waste; and palm-trees rise in tufted groves, as if by enchantment, from the ocean. The hidden but ever active energy of the coral-insect makes the navigation of the archipelago exceedingly difficult, for charts and soundings do not long form safe guides where an unseen power is always at work, reducing the depth of seas, and converting water into dry land.

The intercourse between continental Asia and the islands of the archipelago dates from a very remote period. Their rare products were in request in China and India long before they were heard of in Europe. Camphor and spices, two of the most esteemed productions of these islands, were used by the Chinese two thousand years ago; the one for diffusing an aromatic fra

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grance through their temples, the other as indispensable condiments in their feasts. A Hindoo empire long flourished in Java, where many magnificent ruins still attest its duration and greatness. The Arabs subsequently gained a footing there, as well as in the other islands of the archipelago, and gradually supplanted the religion and governments of India. The Malays are now the dominant race, and they have reduced, where it was possible, the aboriginal population to slavery. The Malay kingdoms have generally perished; but the Malay people remain, and constitute the most energetic portion of the inhabitants, possessing virtues which, developed by a firm and beneficent government, might raise them high in the scale of civilization.

Although the piratical system has received a severe check, and may be considered as destroyed in some of its former haunts, it is still in full operation elsewhere. On the north-west coast of Borneo, the Dayaks have been reduced to order, but the Malays in other parts of the archipelago still carry on their depredations: much, therefore, remains to be done before the seas are completely cleared of these lawless freebooters. The Malay pirates have had their apologists in England; and an outrageous system of robbery on the high seas was assumed to be only a war of tribes, originating in an imperfect civilization. Although their power has been broken, and their numbers have been considerably diminished, their deeds fill so large a space in the modern history of the archipelago that we shall concisely describe them and their system.

**

Piracy seems to be the normal condition of a people in a certain state of civilization, inhabiting islands or the indented coasts of maritime countries. The Archipelago of Greece swarmed with pirates when Rome was in the zenith of her power; and it required all the energy and ability of Pompey to exterminate the hordes which had become the nuisance of the civilized world. The career of some of those remote ancestors on whose blood we pride ourselves in England, would not, we fear, bear a very rigorous scrutiny. The Mediterranean in modern days has exhibited a piratical power, with which regular governments held a quasi-diplomatic intercourse, and to which they even paid a species of black-mail. The Malay pirates exist under somewhat similar circumstances, and are exposed to the same temptations as the vikings of Europe when they issued from creeks and bays to prey upon defenceless traders, sack peaceful villages, and even considerable towns. The Malays

* Our readers will remember the persevering parliamentary attacks upon Sir James Brooke in reference to this subject, and the denunciations of Exeter Hall. do

do in their generation, in the nineteenth century, what these heroes of history did in the fifth.

To a needy and energetic people, with no higher law than force, and no recognised standard of morals, the temptation to piracy must be irresistible. The wealth of the world daily passes along their shores. Ships freighted with the commodities and luxuries of Europe and Asia are often becalmed in lagoons, or entangled in a labyrinth of shoals and islands, from which they can discover no escape. The natural character of the Malay adds force to other strong inducements to rob. Piracy is not merely a habit; it is a passion. The organisation of a community for this purpose is as formidable as it is complete. High up the stream of some beautiful river, presenting the most enchanting scenery, the banks exhibiting pictures of Arcadian simplicity and primitive innocence, are moored fleets of boats, waiting for the well-known signal to put to sea. The vessels are built to subserve the exact purpose for which they are intended the largest are 100 feet in length, with a proportionate beam, carry a gun in the bow, swivels on each broadside, and are propelled by sixty or eighty slaves; others, drawing only a few inches of water, are designed to approach as swiftly as the swoop of a hawk, and to board some unsuspecting ship before her crew can make any preparation. The platforms of the larger prahus are crowded with men who, at the prospect of a fight, generally deck themselves in scarlet; and the spectacle is said then to be eminently military and imposing: the brass guns glitter on the bows, spears and double-handed swords gleam in the sun; the fighting men often appear resplendent in steel armour, and their courage is animated by the beating of drums and gongs. A defenceless trader has little hope of escape from such formidable enemies.

It is not the mere hope of plunder that inspires the Dayak of Borneo in his expeditions, but a singular passion has long prevailed for the possession of human heads. A Dayak is not considered an eligible suitor until he has presented his mistress with one; and the possessor of several is said to be readily distinguishable by his proud and lofty bearing. Heads are displayed in the most conspicuous parts of the houses, and might at first be supposed to be those of a long line of ancestors. One house, belonging to a Dayak chief, was found to be a perfect Golgotha, containing 500 human skulls, which had descended as heirlooms for generations. The origin of this singular passion is a belief that the persons whose heads are thus obtained will be the slaves of their possessor in a future state; they have become

even articles of commerce, prized in proportion to the dignity of their former owners; but the heads of women and children are as eagerly sought as those of men. Whole families are slaughtered for the human spoil; and such is the ferocious character that this horrible passion has impressed on some of the tribes, that a chief has been heard to declare that if any one of his people met his own father in a head-hunting expedition he would undoubtedly kill him.

That portion of the archipelago which has been the most vigilantly watched by the cruisers of civilised governments has been nearly cleared of piratical prahus; but among the multitude of small islands, and in several rivers, they still swarm, and inflict serious injury on commerce. As the crews are generally massacred, nothing is ever heard of these vessels, and their loss is probably often attributed to shipwreck when they have been pillaged and burned by the pirates of the Eastern Seas. The gradual introduction of trade will prove the most effectual measure of suppression, and its influence in Sarawak in changing the character of the people is most encouraging and satisfactory. The piratical system of the archipelago might now be easily crushed. Officers of Sarawak, well acquainted with the habits, language, and haunts of these people, could point out the proper localities for operations and direct the appropriate punishment. The vigilance of the Rajah of Sarawak is necessarily confined to his own coasts. A fleet of ten formidable piratical prahus still pays an annual visit to these waters, but prudently avoids an encounter with the forces of the English Rajah, and passes on to prey upon the commerce of the neighbouring seas and the Dutch settlements in their vicinity; but it is said that Sir James Brooke's representative is about to look out for their next annual visit, and that he fully expects to give a good account of them.

The Governments of Holland, Spain, and Great Britain, all of whom have important interests at stake, have of late directed much of their attention to these countries. The interest of England is confined to the development of her trade; since, with the exception of the small island of Labuan, and of Singapore, she possesses no territory in the Indian Archipelago. In commercial importance, although not in size, the island of JAVA ranks first in the Oriental Archipelago. The country to which it bears the nearest resemblance in beauty of aspect is perhaps Italy, and it must always possess an interest for England, as she ruled it for six years. It received from her an improved revenue system; and an impulse was communicated to industry, which was beginning to produce great results, when, by the arrangements of the peace of 1815, the island was restored to Vol. 111.-No. 222.

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Holland.

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