Mass., 1886. Electric welding, by Elihu Thompson, American, 1886. Electric waves discovered by Heinrich Hertz, of Hamburg, Germany 1883-84, by experiments while Professor of physics at Carlsruhe; published in 1886. Newcomen made a steam engine in 1705. Thomas Savery made one for pumping water in 1698, both English; but James Watt, Scotch, improved it, 1763, to commercial success. John Fitch invented and ran a steamboat in 1786; and improved, it ran 7 miles an hour in 1790. Robert Fulton, also American, invented a submersible torpedo boat in 1800, and made the steamboat in 1807 commercially successful. A wooden railway was used at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1602. Travethick made a locomotive in 1804; but George Stephenson made the first satisfactory steam locomotive with his steam engine of 1814, both British. The first castiron arch bridge by Abraham Darby, English, 1779, and successful iron truss bridges were made in England in 1850; later, steel cantilever truss bridges, the longest 1710 feet across the Firth of Forth: suspension bridge by Finley, American, 1801. The screw propeller, patented by William Lyttleton, English, in 1794. The English built the first railway for carrying passengers and goods in 1825, and the Americans soon after. The steam turbine was invented by C. A. Parsons, American, in 1884; though J. B. Francis improved the turbine wheel, American, 1849; and the first reaction water turbine was worked, Barker's, English, in 1740. The germ of the spinning jenney was used in Nuremberg 1530, for flax only; but Richard Arkwright's invention in 1769, and Samuel Crompton's mule spinner, 1779, and Edward Cartwright's, the first successful power loom, 1785, all English inventions, revolutionized the textile industry, and led to factory weaving in place of weaving by hand: more than that, the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney, American, in 1793, made the growing of cotton an immense industry, and its manufacture, another. The invention of the lockstitch sewing machine by Walter Hunt of New York in 1832-34, followed by the successful, complete sewing machine of Elias Howe of Mass. in 1845, relieved from the slow drudgery of hand sewing. In short, Nordic labor-saving inventions have not only revolutionized the industries from the condition when

"Man works from sun to sun,

But woman's work is never done,"

to the eight-hour day.

Not only has the common worker time to become acquainted with the world he lives in, but Nordic inventions have diffused knowledge by the invention of movable type, whether Koster or Gutenberg were first to print from such type; improved upon by Otto Mergenthaler, German-American, by the linotype, and by the cylinder press; and the "copy" prepared by the type-writer invented by the American, Christopher Sholes. J. H. Schultze, German, was the Columbus of photograph, 1727; Thomas Wedgwood, English, the first to produce pictures by the action of light on a sensitized surface; and John W. Draper of New York produced the first sunlight picture of the human face. Coal gas was used as an illuminant first, by William Murdock, a Scot, in 1792; and in 1805 he was lighting the cotton mills of Manchester, England, by it. To cover Nordic useful inventions in detail would fill volumes; but this sketch of the most familiar ones is sufficient to prove that men of Nordic race have a special genius for mechanical invention.

Yet not only is constructiveness and mental resourcefulness a Nordic characteristic, but there is behind it an individual pride of self-respect which will not accept defeat of one's purpose; a firm and resolute persistence in the face of great obstacles, as, for instance, Elias Howe and Charles Goodyear endured years of privation and poverty in attempts to perfect the idea of an invention. It was English setness which saved the battle of Waterloo; but behind it was the spirit to which Nelson appealed at the battle of Trafalgar, "England expects every man to do his duty;" a sense of individual responsibility, and fidelity to one's trust. It is this which makes a league or covenant entered into by Nordics, the stable foundation of a volunteer army like Cromwell's or the Scotch Covenanters'; of a League of States, like that of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden in 1291, which formed the nucleus of the republic of Switzerland, none but the 13 German-speaking cantons having joined until 1798; and of the similarly formed United States of America. As to the racial character of the founders of our republic, James Savage, who devoted twenty years of expert study to tracing the lineage of the first three generations of settlers of New England and English Long Island says, "From long and careful research, I have judged the proportion of the whole number living here in 1775, that deduce their origin from the Kingdom of England, to exceed ninety-eight in a hundred. A more homogeneous stock cannot be seen." Tacitus

used the virtues of the old Germans to shame the vices of his countryman. What was the "culture" which the Roman Empire represented and possessed? Militarism, imperialism, for the ruling classes for the great mass of the population, slavery, in conditions hardly tolerable for cattle. The pyramids and massive temples of Egypt are monuments of barbarous despotism and superstition; for Egypt shares the bad pre-eminence for cruelty to slaves, with Rome at the period of conquest, especially about 150 B. C. to 100 A. D., when prisoners of war were added to the regular importation of slaves; 150,000 captives being sold after the victories of Aemilius Paulus in Epirus, alone; so that for the period 146 B. C. to 222 A. D. there were three times as many slaves in Italy as free men. By the original Roman law, the master had absolute power over the slave, including the power of life and death; and it was cheaper during the period of conquest, to work the slaves to death, than to save them. The gladiators were commonly slaves, "butchered to make a Roman holiday:" and the rural slaves wore chains day and night: the worst slavery being on the great plantations in Sicily. It is an obvious falsity to call this "civilization," and the "apogee of religion and ethics, as well as other esthetic, spiritual and material expressions of humanity." The principle of reason and humanity, borowed from the Greek stoic philosophy, was applied to the subject of slavery by Seneca the younger, (3 B. C.-65 A. D.), the creed of the later stoics beings less a philosophy than a religion; but Dio Chrysostorn was the first Greek writer who burst the bonds of ancient precedent, and declared slavery to be contrary to the laws of nature; he being the adviser of the emperor Trojan, A. D. 98. The cessation of Roman conquest reduced the supply of slaves, and enhanced their value, and made it profitable to preserve them and their health; and the influence of Christianity becomes stronger under Theodosius, and still more in the laws of Justinism, and there is a transition from slavery to serfdom. The mass of the common people as well as the slaves, were, until modern times, wholly illiterate and grossly ignorant. Literary culture, which was borrowed from the Greeks, was only for the patricians, and later, the higher ecclessiastics. Modern Italian, which was derived from the language of the common people, is a standing evidence that classical Latin was only a widely different language, limited to books and to scholars. Between upper caste and lower caste in India, in Egypt, and in

Rome, there is a great gulf fixed. The Nordic nations did not and could not borrow from them the idea that all men were created free and with equal rights, nor the idea of universal elementary education; for both were original with them. Nor did they borrow science or mechanical invention from either Romans or Jews; nor Christianity from the Jewish race, which rejected it.

The Upper Ohio Valley

By DR. GEORGE P. DONEHOO, HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA

O section of Pennsylvania offers a more interesting field for archæological and ethnological investigation than does that part of the State lying at the head waters of the Ohio River. This "Gateway to the West," as it has been called in historical times, seems to have been a "Gateway to the West" to the prehistoric peoples who once, back in the dim past, lived along the shores of the Ohio or Allegheny River.

It must be remembered that in all of the early records and maps, the name Ohio and Allegheny, as well as other names of the stream, were applied to the present Allegheny and Ohio as being one and the same river. The Monongahela was regarded as a tributary of this main river, which has its head waters in Potter County, and which flows into the Mississippi. The names given to this stream are as varied as were the tribes once living upon its shores. It is most difficult, if not impossible at present, to give these names in their chronological order; just as difficult as it is to try to give the chronological order of the occupancy of the aboriginal tribes once living along it.

The legend on Herman's map of Virginia and Maryland mention of the Ohio as "the Black Minquaas River." Herman also states on this map of 1670, in referring to this unidentified tribe, "where formerly those Black Minquaas came over and as far as the Delaware to trade, but the Sasquehana and the Sinnius Indians went over and destroyed that very great nation, and whether that same river comes out into the Bay of Mexico or the West Sea is not known."

This tribe, which belonged to the Iroquoian group, has been the source of much discussion. They were destroyed by the Iroquois and the Susquehannocks before 1670. Previous to that time they traded with the Dutch on the Hudson River and with the Dutch

*From advance sheets of "Pennsylvania-A History," by Dr. George P. Donehoo, former State Librarian of Pennsylvania, to appear early in 1926 from the press of the Lewis Historical Publishing Company, Inc.