merly quoted, "Sparta under every supposed error of its form, prospered for ages, by the integrity of its manners, and by the character of its citizens. When that integrity was broken, this people did not languish in the weakness of nations sunk in effeminacy. They fell into the stream, by which other states had been carried in the torrent of violent passions, aud in the outrage of barbarous times. They ran the career of other nations after that of ancient Sparta was finished. They built walls and began to improve their possessions, after they ceased to improve their people; and on this new plan, in their struggle for political life, they survived the system of states that perished under the Macedonian dominion. They lived to act with another which arose in the Achæan league, and were the last community of Greece that became a village in the empire of Rome." A few Observations on the Athenian* Constitution and Govern ment. ABOUT the time when the nine archons were appointed in the Athenian government, the inhabitants of Attica were divided into three classes. The first or poorer sort lived in the country, and were employed in agriculture, or in the care of cattle. These from their hardy and unrestrained mode of life, were all in favour of democracy. The second description comprehended those who were possessed of most of the property of the country, and who still enjoyed, notwithstanding the regulations of Theseus, many important privileges, and great authority with their countrymen. These were all in favour of aristocracy. The third class was composed of the citizens of Athens, who were chiefly artizans, or engaged in commerce. They were naturally attached to a republican form of government, from the power and patronage it lodged in their hands, though the more moderate and reflecting among them preferred a mixed form, as being more likely to be stable and lasting. But either through the want of industry, or It will not be necessary to enter into any detail respecting the different authorities in the Athenian government, at that has been done at sufficient length in the Antiquities. † About the year 684 before Christ. the evils that arise from an ill established and fluctuating government, it happened that the rich proprietors found means to bring the other classes into a state approaching to servitude and dependance, in consequence of the debts which they had contracted. Much dissension, tumult, and disorder arose, occasioned in all probability by the rich enforcing payment of their debts with too much rigour, in order to repress and break the turbulent disposition of the lower orders, and by the impatience of the poor to get free from their burdens. The situation of the latter became at last so intolerable, many of them having even sold their own freedom, and that of their children, while others left the country altogether, that a civil war was upon the point of breaking out between them and their oppressors. To prevent matters from coming to this extremity, it was agreed that Draco, a man of severe morals and inflexible integrity, should draw up a code of laws for the better regulation of affairs, and particularly for the right administration of justice. But Draco neither possessed the temper, nor the enlarged views necessary for a lawgiver. Regarding crimes, not according to the degree of injury committed against society, but the malevolent intention of the criminal, which he considered the same in small as in great delinquencies, he proceeded to their utter extirpation by denouncing the punishment of death against them all. These laws, written according to the expression of an eloquent orator in blood, rather aggravated the evil than administered a remedy. At length the people turned their eyes to Solon, as one who, by his wisdom, moderation, and love for his country, seemed best qualified to remove existing evils, and devise a scheme of government which should both establish the rights of individuals, and give scope and energy to the public spirit. It is pretty evident that Solon was guided in the constitution he framed, by the view he took of the character, inclinations and pursuits of the Athenian people, and that form of government, which, from ancient usage and present feeling, seemed most likely to be acceptable to the majority. Notwithstanding that the nobles were numerous, and might have been supposed, from the state of subjection in which they held the people, powerful enough to establish an aristocracy, still they were controlled by the general assemblies appointed by Theseus, and a strong leaning towards democracy among every other class of men. Solon, therefore, determined to give them that constitution which the majority desired; framed, however, in such a manner in some of VOL. II. Gg its parts, that the rich, by their superior influence, might have it in their power to be elected to offices of authority, and in that situation control the inferior orders. The two great principles which he seems to have kept in view were, such an equality among all ranks in the state as the property, occupation and intelligence of the people would admit, and such an equal distribution of rewards and punishments as would have the effect of making them good citizens. These principles, impracticable in a great measure in large states, upon account of the number of inhabitants who cannot all meet together on every occasion to deliberate and vote, were generally established in the states of Greece, and maintained without interruption chiefly through the following causes. The number of free inhabitants who alone were admitted to a share in the government, was small in comparison with the slaves who were all excluded. The number of free Athenian citizens in the time of Pericles, was stated to be fourteen thousand and forty; a much greater number, it is probable, than existed in Solon's time. These were all above the age requisite for voting in the assemblies of the people, and performing other functions of government. At a later period they were reckoned twenty one thousand; in addition to whom were ten thousand freemen who were either foreigners, the sons of foreigners, or freed slaves, all denominated by the common name of μcroix06. The number of slaves of both sexes, and all ages, was found at this period to amount to four hundred thousand. In Lacedæmon, and other parts of Greece, they were said to have been still more numerous in proportion to the free citizens.-These slaves, consisting either of captives taken in war, or of such as were exposed to sale in the public markets, and bought for their master's use, were employed to cultivate fields, to practise various mechanic arts, and to perform every kind of menial office. An Athenian or Lacedæmonian citizen would have thought himself degraded by submitting to such mean and servile employments*. Hence they were all gentlemen, proprietors of lands, engaged in commerce or lucrative possessions, servants of the state, or idle saunterers about the forum maintained at the public expense. They had thus at Athens, abundance of leisure to turn their attention There was in Athens a class of men called enris and Пsarai, who acted as servants, but they could change their masters when the term of their engagement was expired. Their numbers decreased after they were allowed by a law of Aristides to vote in the public assemblies, and to receive payment for so doing. to affairs of state, and enough of vanity to suppose themselves extremely well qualified to direct them. This exemption from bodily labour enabled them also to cultivate their minds more highly than was every done perhaps by any other people, to encourage the fine arts, and acquire a relish for all the finished productions which men of genius presented for their suffrage and approbation. Attica seems at a very early period to have been divided into 4 tribes or wards, and into head-boroughs. Afterwards the number of wards was increased to 10, and the boroughs to 174. Had royalty not been abolished in Attica, or had the archons possessed considerable power, this division of the Athenians, under the superintendence of particular magistrates, might have been made, like similar divisions in our own country, a constituent part in the government, without usurping the whole, and causing every other department to emanate from themselves. The Eupatrids or nobles never seem to have united together, to form an assembly distinct from the people, both to co-operate with and to control them, but aimed always at establishing their own authority upon the ruins of liberty, and seemed content, excepting one or two powerful families who aspired at the sovereignty, to domineer over their own vassals and dependants. This want of concert, rather than of power and inclination, saved the Athenians from falling under the worst species of tyranny, that of an oligarchy, as it is not to be doubted that the multitude of slaves could have been easily engaged to assist the views of those, who had the means of either breaking their fetters, or of making it their interest to forsake their masters. But the lower orders were extremely watchful and jealous of the nobles; and, though they were often forced to beg assistance from them against their pressing wants, and even sometimes to barter their freedom for money or provisions, they still regarded them in the light of oppressors who had acquired a dominion to which they had no natural claim. It is probable also, that some among the nobles themselves, as well as many citizens, who had by their industry, enterprize and success in their undertakings acquired an independence, were more inclined to a popular form of government than to an aristocracy, as they might hope to obtain a greater degree of weight and influence with the multitude, than with the rich and powerful. To what extent these reasons operated, or whether there were other more powerful causes tending to strengthen the democratical spirit Those who pos of the people, certain it is, that Solon found it predominant at the time he was called upon to legislate for the Athenians, and determined to make it the principle of the government he was about to establish-But, as it would have been dangerous and inexpedient to place the rich and the poor upon the same level, and make no difference in the kind of services required of them, he resolved to divide the people into four classes, making the property they possessed the criterion of their rank. sessed 500 measures of corn, or any commodity dry or liquid from the yearly produce of their lands or other sources of gain then open, were reckoned in the first class. The second consisted of those who possessed 300 measures. Both these classes of citizens were exempted from serving in the infantry, or on board the fleet, except as officers, but were obliged to maintain a horse for public service, and take the field when requisite: and hence the origin of the equites or knights. The third rank consisted of those who possessed 200 measures. This income being reckoned insufficient to enable them to keep a horse, they were therefore bound to serve in the infantry as heavy armed soldiers, and to furnish themselves with all the accoutrements necessary for active war. The rest of the citizens were also obliged to serve their country either among the heavy armed troops, if they could procure the necessary weapons, or among the light armed as less expense was requisite to equip them for that situation. They were also required to serve on board the fleet as mariners; a service which yielded them, when the maritime power of Athens was at its height, greater profit than they could have obtained by land. Solon appointed the magistrates to be chosen from the first three classes, as being supposed better educated than the last, and probably enjoying more leisure and time to be devoted to the public good. He, however, put the power of election into the hands of the fourth, gave them the exclusive privilege of being chosen judges in all civil cases, and allowed them an equal vote in all the public assemblies. Being the most numerous party, it was easy to foresee, that, if united, which it was possible for them to be under the management of an artful leader, they would easily control the other orders, and model the government, or at least, direct its measures according to their pleasure. Solon probably foresaw this, and, in order to provide against it, established a council or senate consisting of 100 persons from each of the 4 wards. To them he committed a good deal of the authority |