Job xxxvii. 1-5); and the lightning (appropriately called 'breaker-through'), breaking through this solid sky, lightened the world (Job xxxviii. 25). The clouds covering the firmament held the rain as in a reservoir, which was shed down on earth as if from large leathern bottles, and by canals or water courses (Job xxxviii. 25, 37. Ps. lxxvii. 17); sometimes through windows opened expressly for the purpose (Gen. vii. 11). That a portion of these representations must be taken as a poetic clothing of physical truths appears from the fact, that the Psalmist gives to the rising sun wings to denote the fleetness with which its beams overspread the earth (Ps. cxxxix 9), and speaks of the sun's opening his eyelids in rising from his bed (Job iii. 9). The stars were distinct solid bodies, called forth every night by the Almighty, who, sitting upon the circle of the heavens, and stretching them out as a curtain and as a tent to dwell in, brought out the numerous host of heaven, and called them all by name, innumerable though they were (Isa. xl. 22, 26. Ps. civ. 2. Gen. xv. 5). Some idea seems to have prevailed that the stars were living beings, sons of God, which may have been the germ of the heavenly host in the sense of a celestial hierarchy (Job i. 6; xxv. 5; xxxviii. 7. Isa. xlv. 12). Hence a divine court, Jehovah sitting on his throne, and all the host of heaven standing on his right hand and on his left (2 Chron. xviii. 18); and the Almighty is therefore termed 'Jehovah of hosts.' The Hebrews, even in patriarchal times, were acquainted with certain of the lesser heavenly bodies. Job speaks (ix. 9) of Arcturus, Orion, and Pleiades. The heavens would naturally attract the attention of these early tenants of the earth, especially in Arabia and Palestine, the rather because, as shepherds, they passed much of their time in the open air, watching their flocks by night as well as by day. While engaged in the musings to which such a position would naturally give rise, they would, under the influence of a creative imagination, easily be led to form the stars first into groups, and then into the shapes of animals. Hence arose the signs of the zodiac. The word which, in the common version, is rendered Arcturus means, probably, the Great Bear. The sons of Arcturus (Job xxxviii. 32) are the stars that accompany it, now called 'the tail of the bear.' Herder renders the words in the passage last referred to 'Lead forth the bear with her young.' The passage speaks of the constellation as conducted round and round the pole as by some unseen hand, like a mother with her children. God is made to appeal to this phenomenon as a manifestation of his majesty and power, and as far above the skill of man. Who ever looked on that beautiful constellation, and marked its regular revolutions, without feeling that its position and movements were such as the Almighty Creator only could produce? Orion was a constellation which was conceived of as a mighty and impious giant bound upon the sky: hence the expression, 'Canst thou loose the bands of Orion?' (Job xxxviii. 81). According to eastern tradition, this giant was Nimrod, the founder of Babylon. By the aid of a telescope, about two thousand stars have been seen in this constellation; and, in what is termed 'the sword of Orion,' there is a nebula, almost visible to the naked eye, which is computed to exceed the sun in size two trillions two hundred thousand billion times. Surely, if Job found in the starry heavens evidence for the power, providence, and majesty of God, we have incomparably greater reasons for so doing with the sublime views which astronomy has in our time laid open. The Hebrew word rendered Pleiades, denotes a cluster. The name is given to the cluster of stars in the neck of the constellation Taurus, of which six or seven may be seen by the naked eye; but as many as two hundred have been counted by the aid of a telescope. The morning star was known (Isa. xiv. 12. Rev. ii. 28). In Job xxvi. 13, is mentioned the crooked serpent;' the Dragon is still one of the constellations; it lies between the Great and the Little Bear, spreading itself, as it were, in windings across the heavens. The Zodiac is also mentioned in Job xxxviii. 32, under a name which signifies dwelling-places or lodgings, because in them the sun appears to dwell one after another. Of the separate signs, only one is mentioned, namely, the Twins (Acts xxviii. 11), by the terms Castor and Pollux.' 'The chambers of the south,' in Job ix. 9, may indicate the stars hidden in the southern hemisphere, or rather in a southerly direction, in the dark recesses of the south. In Job xxxviii. 33, Jehovah asks, 'Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven?' We are apt, in the knowledge of astronomy which we now possess, to think that Job's knowledge was most insignificant, even when it was true. And, certainly, our acquaintance with these ordinances' is sufficiently great and accurate to foster within us the most deeply-felt piety; but, after all that Tycho Brahé, Kepler, Newton, and others have taught, we have learnt to small purpose, if we are not convinced that what we know is, relatively to what remains to be learnt, only little more than was known to the patriarchs of old. And those who condemn the Bible, because it does not teach as much as the Mécanique Céleste of La Place, in effect condemn that work itself, which, there is every reason to believe, will, in process of time, have to give place to more comprehensive as well as more exact views of the vast and immeasurable universe of God. A work which sets forth the highest truth of its age-especially if, like the Bible, it applies that truth to the great purposes of religion, will be regarded by all wisely judging men — as a pearl of great price,' and 'a possession for ever,' notwithstanding any changes which may be brought by the constant advances of a ceaselessly progressive civilisation. About A.D. 1500, Copernicus had satisfied himself that the sun is the centre of the solar system. In 1610, Galileo, having invented a telescope, discovered Jupiter's satellites, and the moon-like phases of Venus. These discoveries supplied additional arguments for the truth of the Copernican system. This system Galileo defended in his writings, which were, on that account, condemned as heretical by the Inquisition, who, on the generally received opinion that the Scripture taught that the earth, a stationary body, was the centre of the world, accounted the new opinions to be contradicted by, and hostile to, the Bible. There thus appeared to exist a contrariety between Scripture and science. This contrariety has been met by drawing a distinction between religious and physical tenets. The former it is the object of the Bible to teach. In the case of the latter, it merely reproduces what in any period it finds prevalent. On this point,' says Professor Whewell,- Indications of a Creator,' p. 5,-'it is reasonably held that the phrases which are found in Scripture respecting astronomical facts are not to be made use of to guide our scientific opinions: they may be supposed to answer their end if they fall in with common notions, and are thus effectually subservient to the moral and religious import of revelation. The meaning which any generation puts upon the phrases of Scripture, depends, more than is at first supposed, upon the received philosophy of the time. Hence, while men imagine that they are contending for revelation, they are in fact contending for their own interpretation of revelation, unconsciously adapted to what they believe to be rationally probable. And the new interpretation which the new philosophy requires, and which appears to the older school to be a fatal violence done to the authority of religion, is accepted by their successors without the dangerous results which were apprehended. When the language of Scripture, invested with its new meaning, has become familiar to men, it is found that the ideas which it calls up are quite as reconcileable as the former ones were with the soundest religious views. And the world then looks back with surprise at the error of those who thought that the essence of revelation was involved in their own arbitrary version of some collateral circumstance. At the pre sent day, we can hardly conceive how reasonable men should have imagined that religious reflections on the stability of the earth, and the beauty of the luminaries which revolve round it, would be interfered with by its being acknowledged, that this rest and motion are apparent only.' ATHALIAH (H. time of the Lord), daughter of Ahab, king of Israel, and of Jezabel, grand-daughter of Omri, king of Israel; wife of Joram, king of Judah, and mother of Ahaziah, king of Judah (884, A. C.). She used all her influence in favour of idolatry, towards which her Tyrian origin may have inclined her; showing herself equally depraved with her mother. She took part in the iniquities of her husband, and she counselled her son to do wickedly. On her son's death, she destroyed the seed royal of the house of Judah, though the children of her own son, and so usurped the throne. Joash, however, was saved from her fury, and concealed in the temple. The day of her punishment was coming. Jehoiada had not forgotten the divine promise in favour of the posterity of David, and gradually prepared an insurrectionary movement against the queen. This at length broke forth the young king was proclaimed; when Athaliah, aroused and alarmed by the shouting of the people, hurried into the temple for protection, whence she was dragged and slain, after a usurpation of six years. She is the only female that reigned in Jerusalem. Her wretched end affords an instance of the futility of crime. She waded through blood to a throne, from which she was precipitated by the indignant enthusiasm of a nation in favour of a child. The character of this 'wicked woman' has been well drawn by one who had a deep insight into the human heart, Racine. Her death was the signal for a great religious reformation, the details of which let us know that Baal had a temple even in Jerusalem. This unholy place was broken down, and the altars and images were destroyed. Mattan, the priest, was also slain before the altars (2 Kings viii. 26; xi. 2 Chron. xxii. xxiii. xxiv). ATHEISM (G. being without God) is not expressly mentioned in the Scriptures; but the idea and the fact are found there in terms of condemnation. Thus the Ephesians, before their conversion to Christ, had no hope, and were without God in the world' (Eph. ii. 12); words in which the folly, the evil consequences of atheism, and atheism itself, are well described. Accordingly, atheism agreeably with the etymological import of the word, as given above is being without God, the absurdity of which is manifested by the addition, in the world,' that is, 'in this system of created order and beauty;' and the sad consequences are, to rob man of hope both in this state and the next; to take from him the idea of perfection; to make ATH man himself the highest being, and so the highest moral, as well as intellectual, Such a position and model in the universe. such consequences bear all the appearance of folly; and with propriety, therefore, does the psalmist affirm, The fool hath said in So his heart there is no God' (Ps. xiv.). general, if we may not even say universal, has been the acknowledgment of a divine power, that in general terms it may well be felt difficult to avoid ascribing atheism, if not to a natural obliquity of the intellect, yet to the depravation of the moral feelings (Ps. xiv. 2). Atheism, then, is the denial of God, in what sense? In brief, it is the assertion that the universe owes its origin to matter, Whether any intelligent and not to mind. being has ever proceeded to this length, that is, has been a real atheist, may be doubted. Men often deceive themselves, being dissatisfied with common representations of the Deity: they deny these, and, with a certain vain love of talking, think they deny the existence of God. This is that practical atheism, of which we fear there is much in the world; and which, as it springs from an empty head and a flippant tongue, tends to keep the mind and heart as poor and destitute as it finds them. Besides a vulgar, there is also a speculative atheism, Unwhich, if more respectable in its origin, is scarcely less prejudicial in its results. able to form any satisfactory conception of God, thinking that all prevalent conceptions of God are too material, and so untrue; and trying to rise and carry abroad their thoughts so as to conceive of God in a manner corresponding with his nature, speculative atheists go on refining on their ideas and their terms, till at last they find their Deity in some ethereal essence, diffused throughout, and identified with, the universe, of which it is the living and moving power. Diffusion and concentration, in regard to the same object, are at the same time impossible. But the idea of person necessarily implies concentration. A person is an individual, a unit. Hence the Scriptures say, God 'is one.' diffused Deity, therefore, so far as the diffusion sets aside personality, is no God at all. This system is generally called pantheism; that is, all God-God is all, and all is God. But, if all is God, there is no God; for the very idea of God is something distinct, individual something existing apart and separate from the creation, as its origin and cause. A Pantheism approaches also to nature-worship-the worship of the boundless, fathomless, light-covered all, in which the Babylonians and other eastern nations had the earliest form of their subsequently corrupted idolatry. Men must and will individualise their conception of divine power; and if in their speculations they rest not in one great all-creating, all-pervading, and all sustaining Mind, they will pass from a ATHENS (G. the city of Minerva, sho to Equally notorious was their talkativeness. Hence the sarcasm of Alexander, who ordered, as two of the most difficult things, that the Lacedemonians should become slaves, and the Athenians learn to hold their tongues. There were in Athens certain spots, the Greek name for which may in English be rendered chattering places, where the common people met together to hear, report, and discuss the news, and where even the most trivial circumstances were eagerly welcomed. It is not peculiar to the Athenians to love or to discuss new things: the peculiarity consists in this, that the appetite was so large and morbid as to attract universal notice, and find a record from The Athenians were also acmany a pen. counted very zealous for the honour of the gods. Athens was crowded with temples. Pausanias says, that they were excessively given to veneration for divine things, more than others. The altar to the unknown God, to which Paul alludes, has given occasion to much discussion. It appears, however, from profane authorities, that there were altars in ancient times in Athens, bearing the words 'To the unknown Gods; and, as the writers who give us this information are speaking in the plural number, it is very likely that these altars severally had the inscription, 'To the unknown God.' The origin of such altars is in obscurity. Probably they may have arisen from a wish on the part of the god-honouring Athenians to leave no possible divinity without an altar. Adroitly, however, and with great effect, does Paul seize the opportunity of proclaiming to these idolaters the only true, but to them, unknown God, the Maker of heaven and earth. WEST END OF THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS. As other ancient cities, so Athens had, on an elevated spot, where had been planted the first germ of its social life, a citadel, or stronghold, termed the Acropolis. In relation to Athens, this is still a very interesting spot; for it bears the remains, in a mutilated state, of three temples, besides other ruins. In the days of its glory, however, the Athenian Acropolis, of which the cut gives a view as if it were restored, comprised objects of the deepest interest and concernment to the minds of the citizens. We can add only a few particulars. The west side of the Acropolis, which alone afforded a natural ascent, was, under the dominion of Pericles, furnished with a splendid flight of steps, and adorned with the Propylæa, and two beautiful buildings, one on each of its sides. The Propylæa, built of Pentelican marble, was the work of the architect Mnesicles, who employed five years in the task. Before this edifice, there stood, in the age of the Cæsars, two equestrian statues; of which one was erected in honour of Augustus, the other of Agrippa. Before its southern wing was a temple dedicated to 'Victory without wings.' On the left was a small picture gallery. On the highest part of the platform of the Acro- ΑΤΟ found for them, since the platform was only From the year 1814, Athens has been the capital of the new Greek kingdom, of which Otho is sovereign. By the aid of steam, railways, and other European appliances, Athens is now undergoing a renovation scarcely less great than that which was commenced there nearly two thousand years ago by the Christian apostle. ATONEMENT (At-one-ment; making one, or reconciling). The fundamental idea is that of bringing two alienated parties into harmony. This is effected by some instrumentality, which instrumentality is the atoning agency. All these ideas are expressed in these lines from Shakspere, which show the original meaning of our English word: Lod. Is there division 'twixt my lord and Cassio? Des. A most unhappy one: I would do much T'attone them, for the love I bear to Cassio. Tyndal has applied the term to our Lord. 'Paul sayth, One God, one Mediator (that is to say, advocate, intercessor, or an atonemaker) between God and men.' The scriptural idea of atonement must be sought originally in the records of the Old Testament. The Hebrew word, in its radical meaning, signifies to cover by means of some substance or thing: for instance, the ark was ordered to be covered with pitch. But, if you cover, you obliterate, destroy, re move. Hence the term, when used of man, intended doing some act by which sin was covered or done away with: when used of God, it signified to blot out, to forgive. Accordingly, atonement is the means by which man obtains of God remission of sins. It is, in other words, God's method of pardoning his guilty creatures, and so receiving them into favour. As such, it is, in its very essence, an expression of mercy, not wrath. It is a divinely originated expedient, by which man is enabled to prove his repentance, and God is pleased to manifest his grace. The idea of atonement is not to pacify, but to cover, and so to pardon sin. Further: sin it is which alienates man from God. Your iniquities have separated between you and your God' (Isa. lix. 2). This is the general doctrine of Scripture. The fact of man's alienation, necessitates atonement. Hence God appointed means by which sin should be covered and blotted out; so that, the intervening obstacle and disturbing cause being removed, man might be restored to God's favour, and, being at ་ one with him, might perfect holiness and Such is the general theory of revelation, We have intimated that the atonements of Scripture were divine. This requires some explanation. There is no record showing that offerings of any kind originated with God in primitive times. Primarily, offerings had their origin on the part of man. They are the utterance of a human thought. They grew up in an oriental soil. In the East a sovereign is never approached without an offering. Hence usage, as well as But what arose thus naturally, gratitude and piety, introduced offerings into religion. bore the character of an appropriate expres. |