Fig. 85.

the rafter in its place, and prevents it from slipping away from the abutment cut for it, which, by throwing the thrust on the tenon, would probably split it. The end of the rafter should be cut with a square butt, so that the shrinkage of the timber will not lead to any settlement.

The connection of the foot of a king-post with the tie-beam to be suspended from it is shown in fig. 85.

The king-post should be cut somewhat short, to give the power of screwing up the framing after the timber has become fully seasoned. The tie-beam may be suspended from the king-post, either by a bolt, as shown, or by a strap passed round the tie-beam and secured by iron wedges or cotters, passing through a hole in the king-post; this last is the more perfect, but at the same time the more expensive of the two methods.

Fig. 85 also shows the manner in which the feet of the struts butt upon the king-post. They are slightly tenoned to keep them in their places. The ends of a strut should be cut off as nearly square as possible, otherwise, when the timber shrinks, which it always does, more or less, the thrust is thrown upon the edge only, which splits or crushes under the pressure, and causes settlement.

This is shown out by the dotted lines on the right-hand side of the cut. The dotted lines on the opposite side of the

figure show a similar effect, produced by the shrinking of the king-post, for which there is no preventive but making it of oak, or some other hard wood. The same observations apply to the connections of the principal rafters with the top of the king-post, which are managed in a precisely similar

manner.

In figures 86, 87, and 88, are shown different methods

of fixing purlins, which are sufficiently explained by the figures to need no further description.

In figures 44, 45, 46, and 47, are shown the modes of framing the ends of binding joists into girders, and of connecting the ceiling joists with the binders; and as these have been already described under the head of "Floors," it is unnecessary here to say anything further on the subject.

As a general rule, all timbers should be notched down to those on which they rest, so as to prevent their being moved either lengthways or sideways. Where an upright post has to be fixed between two horizontal sills, as in the case of the uprights of a common framed partition, it is simply tenoned into them, and the tenons secured with oak pins driven through the cheeks of the mortice.

233. The carpenter requires considerable bodily strength for the handling of the timbers on which he has to work; he should have a knowledge of mechanics, that he may understand the nature of the strains and thrusts to which his work is exposed, and the best method of preventing or resisting them; and he should have such a knowledge of working drawings as will enable him, from the sketches of the architect, to set out the lines for every description of centering and framing that may be entrusted to him for execution.

234. In measuring carpenters' work the tenons are included in the length of the timber: this is not the case in joiners' work, in which they are allowed for in the price.

The labor in framing, roofs, partitions, floors, &c., is either valued at per square of 100 superficial feet, and the timber charged for separately, or the timber is charged as "fixed in place," the price varying according to the labor on it. as "cube fir in bond," "cube fir framed," "cube fir wrougat and framed," &c. For shoring of the value of the timber is allowed for use and waste.

JOINER.

235. The work of the joiner consists in framing and joining together the wooden finishings and decorations of buildings, both internal and external, such as floors, staircases, framed-partitions, skirtings, solid door and window frames, hollow or cased window frames, sashes and shutters, doors, columns and entablatures, chimney-pieces, &c., &c.

The joiner's work requires much greater accuracy and finish than that of the carpenter, and differs materially from it in being brought to a smooth surface with the plane wherever exposed to view, whilst in carpenters' work the timber is left rough as it comes from the saw.

236. The joiner uses a great variety of tools; the principal cutting tools are saws, planes, and chisels.

Of saws there are many varieties, distinguished from each other by their shape and by the size of the teeth.

The ripper has 8 teeth in 3 inches; the half-ripper 3 teeth to the inch; the hand saw 15 teeth in 4 inches; the panel saw 6 teeth to the inch.

The tenon saw, used for cutting tenons, has about 8 teeth to the inch, and is strengthened at the back by a thick piece of iron, to keep the blade from buckling. The sash saw is similar to the tenon saw, but is backed with brass instead of iron, and has 13 teeth to the inch. The dovetail saw is still smaller, and has 15 teeth to the inch.

Besides the above, other saws are used for particular purposes, as the compass saw, for cutting circular work, and the key-hole saw, for cutting out small holes. The carcase saw is a large kind of dovetail saw, having about 11 teeth to an inch.

237. Planes are also of many kinds; those called bench planes as the jack plane, the trying plane, the long plane, the jointer, and the smoothing plane, are used for bringing the stuff to a plane surface. The jack plane is about 18 inches long, and is used for the roughest work. The trying plane is about 22 in. long, and used after the jack plane for trying up, that is, taking off shavings the whole length of the stuff; whilst in using the jack plane the workman stops at every arm's-length. The long plane is 2 ft. 3 in. long, and is used when a piece of stuff is to be tried up very straight. The