Abd-er-Rahman-Alghafekee, a Moorish leader of Spain; invaded France at the head of a Moslem army estimated at eighty thousand men, and after ravaging Aquitaine was defeated and killed in the decisive battle of Tours by the French under Charles Martel in October, 732. This victory relieved France from all danger of subjection to the Moorish power.

Abdul

Abd-ool-Mejeed, Mejid, or Abdoul-Medjid, born in 1823; succeeded his father, Mahmood II., as Sultan of Turkey July 1, 1839. At the commencement of his reign his dominions were saved from invasion by the Egyptian army of Mehemet Ali, through the intervention of England and other European powers. In 1853 the hostilities known as the Crimean War were commenced between France, England, and Turkey as allies on one side and Russia on the other. Abdool-Mejeed promoted reform and favored the toleration of Christians. At his death, in June, 1861, his brother, Abdul-Aziz, ascended the throne of Turkey.

Abdul-Aziz-Khan, Sultan of Turkey, was born February 9, 1830, and succeeded his brother, Abd-oolMejeed, June 25, 1861. He was the second son of the Sultan MahmoodKhan. At the commencement of his reign he promoted numerous reforms and favored religious toleration. He visited France in 1867, and in 1869 founded an observatory at Constantinople, and in the year following caused a civil code to be prepared and promoted the construction of railways and of telegraph lines; but this

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liberal policy caused many of his Moslem subjects to regard him with enmity, and he was greatly embarrassed by the desperate condition of the national finances. Formidable insurrections broke out in Herzegovina and Bosnia in July, 1875, and in May of the following year an insurrection of the palace was incited by the fanatical Moslems and AbdulAziz was deposed. His death, which occurred June 4, 1876, was at first supposed to have been caused by his own hand, but it is now generally believed that he was assassinated.

Abdul-Hamid II., Sultan of Turkey; born September 22, 1842; was the younger son of Sultan Abdool-Mejeed, who died in 1861. His brother, Mourad V., having become insane, was deposed, and AbdulHamid succeeded him August 31, 1876. Russia declared war against Turkey April 21, 1877. In the campaign which followed the Turks at first gained some successes, but were afterward defeated in numerous battles by the Russians, and after the capture by them of Plevna the Porte asked for peace; an armistice was signed in February, 1878, and the Treaty of San Stefano on March 3. The latter was materially modified by the Congress of Berlin.

RAHMAN.

A Becket, Thomas. See BECKET.

Abelard, or Abailard, Pierre, a French orator, scholar, philosopher, and writer, was born near Nantes in 1079. Devoting his attention at first to ancient languages, he subsequently removed to Paris, where he pursued his studies under William de Champeaux, whom it is said that he soon excelled as a debater and rhetorician. In 1101 he established a school at Melun which was resorted to by large numbers of students. He afterward taught in Paris with great success, and about 1113 commenced

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attempted to recover possession of several important fortresses which had been lost by the British; but he was defeated by the French, under Montcalm, at Ticonderoga, in July, 1758, and was soon after succeeded by Lord Amherst.

"Abelard," says Hallam, "was almost the first who awakened mankind in the age of darkness to a sympathy with intellectual excellence. His bold theories, not the less attractive perhaps for treading upon the bounds of heresy, his imprudent vanity that scorned the regularly acquired reputation of older men, allured a multitude of disciples who would never have listened to an ordinary teacher. . . . But the whole of Abelard's life was the shipwreck of genius, and of genius both the source of his own calamities and unserviceable to posterity."

Abercorn, James Hamilton, K. G., DUKE OF, Duke of Chatelherault, in France, the head of the Scottish house of Hamilton, was born in London, January 21, 1811, and was educated at Christ Church, Oxford. He was created a Knight of the Garter in 1844, and in 1866, being then the Marquis of Abercorn, was appointed Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, and two years later, in recognition of his very able administration, was created Duke of Abercorn in the peerage of Ireland. He retired from the office of Lord-Lieutenant during the same year, but was reappointed in 1874. He was in 1878 sent by the Queen on a special mission to Rome, to present King Humbert with the Order of the Garter. Three of his sons were recently members of the House of Commons. In politics he is a Conservative.

Abercrombie, James, an English officer appointed in 1756, with the rank of major-general, to command against the French in America. Two years later, with an

Abercromby, Sir John, a British general; served in Egypt under his father, Sir Ralph Abercromby, and in 1810, while Governor of Madras, captured Mauritius from the French. Died about 1817.

Abercromby, Sir Ralph, a British general; born in Scotland in 1734; studied at the Universities of Edinburgh and Leipsic; entered the army, and in 1773 became a member of Parliament. He gained distinction in Holland under the Duke of York as an able commander in the various campaigns against the French from 1793 to 1799, and for his services was created, in 1795, Knight of the Bath. In 1800 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in Egypt, where, in 1801, he was mortally wounded in battle against the French, and expired soon after. He possessed great bravery, military talents of a high order, generosity, and a fine sense of honor. He left four sons, the first Lord Abercromby, Sir John (mentioned above), Lord Dunfermline, and Lieutenant-Colonel Alexander Abercromby.

Abercromby, Sir Robert, brother of the preceding, was appointed commander-in-chief in British India in 1792. He was successful in subduing the Rohillas, and after holding the office for about five years returned to England, and was chosen a member of Parliament. Died about 1827.

Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, EARL OF, a statesman and diplomat; born in 1784; succeeded to the Scottish earldom of Aberdeen at the age of eighteen. At twenty he was chosen one of the representative peers of Scotland. He espoused the politics of the Tory

party, and was sent as an envoy to Vienna in 1813. In the year following he was created Viscount Gordon in the peerage of the United Kingdom. He was Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in the Cabinets of the Duke of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel. He became Prime Minister of England in 1852; was opposed to the war with Russia, and for that reason lost his popularity, and resigned his office in 1855. Lord Palmerston succeeded him as Prime Minister. Died December, 1860.

Abernethy, John, a physician, surgeon, and anatomist; born in London, England, in 1764. He studied medicine under the celebrated John Hunter. He became chief sur

geon of St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, and was very successful as a lecturer on anatomy and surgery. By his lectures, writings, and practice he effected very beneficial and important changes in the system of surgery. He was also distinguished for his shrewdness and eccentricity. Died 1831.

Aboo-Bekr, Abu-Bekr, or Abou-Bekr, a Moslem leader and Caliph; born of the celebrated tribe of Koreish in Arabia in 571 A. D. He was one of the earliest and most ardent of the converts of Mohammed. Ayeshah, the daughter of AbooBekr, became the favorite wife of that prophet. Upon the death of Mohammed, in 632 A. D., Aboo-Bekr was elected his successor. Died 634.

Aboo-1-Abbas - Abdallah, surnamed AS-SEFFAH, "The Shedder of Blood," the twenty-second Caliph of the Moslems and the first of the Abbasside dynasty, was born at Damascus about 720. As a descendant of Abbas (before mentioned), he, with his family, regarded the Caliphs of the line of Ommeyyah as usurpers and themselves as the only legitimate princes. A revolt in favor of the Abbassides occurred in the reign of Merwan II., who had Ibraheem, the brother of Aboo-l-Abbas-Abdallah, put to death at Damascus. Aboo-lAbbas-Abdallah escaped to Koofah,

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where in 749 he was proclaimed Caliph, and soon after gained a decisive victory over Merwan, who fled to Egypt, where he was slain. Although the new Caliph was accused of having put to death at least one hundred members of the house of Ommeyyah, against whom he had long cherished a bitter hatred, he was otherwise regarded, by his subjects as well as by historians, as a wise and generous ruler. He was noted for his great personal beauty. Died 754.

Aboolfazl, a statesman and historian, became Prime Minister to the illustrious Akbar, Emperor of the Moguls, in 1572. He held that position until about the year 1600, when he was assassinated. He was the author of many historical works of great value, relating chiefly to the reign and times of Akbar. As a minister he was wise, liberal, and enlightened.

Aboolfeda, an Arabian Prince and military commander, the author of several valuable works on history and science, was born of royal lineage at Damascus about 1273. He was deprived of the crown of Hamah, the heritage of his family, by Nasir, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria, but was subsequently created Prince of Hamah by the same sovereign as a reward for distinguished military services. He was esteemed by his contemporaries, as well as by the writers of a later period, as a man endowed with rare genius, wisdom, and courage. His works exhibit extensive research and careful study. Died 1331.

Aboo, Abu, or Abou, Moslem, or Muslim, a Mohammedan general; born about 720; rendered conspicuous service in establishing the Abbasside dynasty of Caliphs. After subduing a powerful rebellion against that house, he was treacherously assassinated, in 755, by order of Aboo-Jaafar, whose jealousy he had incurred.

Aboo, Abou, or Abu, Sofian, Sophian, or Sophyan, an Arabian chief of the tribe of Koreish,

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was for a long time a bitter opponent of Mohammed and his teachings, but finally embraced the faith of Islam. His son Moaweeyeh founded the dynasty Ommeyyah and reigned as Caliph at Damascus.

Aboo-Talib, or Abu Talif, uncle of Mohammed and father of Ali, who was a distinguished Moslem leader and the husband of Fatima, only daughter of the Prophet, He belonged to the tribe of Koreish. Died about 620.

Aboo-Yoosuf-Yakoob,

Abu-Yusuf-Yakub, or AbouYousouf-Yakoub, surnamed ALMANSOOR, "The Victorious," was born at Morocco in 1160, and succeeded his father, Aboo-Yakoob-Yoosuf, as Sultan of Africa and Spain, of the Almohade dynasty, in 1184. After subduing a number of insurrections in Africa, he made three expeditions into Spain and Portugal to avenge his father's death, captured 40,000 prisoners of war, whom he sent to Africa, reduced many important towns and fortresses, and in 1195 gained a great and decisive victory over the Christian forces, under King Alfonso III., near Valencia. Died 1198.

About, Edmond-FrançoisValentin, a French author; born at Dieuze, February 14, 1828. He studied at the Lycée Charlemagne and at the French School of Athens. He has contributed numerous articles to the leading journals of Paris, and is the author of a large number of works, including novels, political treatises, and general literary articles. In 1868 he became one of the contributors to the Gaulois newspaper, and in 1872, while on a visit to Strasburg, was arrested by the Germans. He became in 1873 the Paris correspondent of the London Athenæum.

Aboville, d', François Marie, COUNT, born at Brest, France, in 1730; served as colonel with great credit in the French army in America. In 1781, at Yorktown, Va., he gained distinction as commander of the artil

lery, and was promoted to the rank of general about 1790. Under the First Empire he became Senator and Inspector-General of Artillery. Died 1817.

Abrabanel, Abarbanel, or Abrabaniel, Isaac, a rabbi of great eminence, supposed to be a direct descendant of David, King of Israel, was born of a wealthy family in Lisbon in 1437. He was the author of several commentaries on the Scriptures. His works evince a profound knowledge of Hebrew theology, and are admired for elegance of style. Though at one period Abrabanel was treated with great distinction at the courts of Portugal and Spain, he suffered severely from persecution in those countries, and in 1492, after the edict of banishment against the Jews was promulgated by Ferdinand and Isabella, went to Italy. Died in Venice, 1508.

Abraham, or Abram, signifying "the father of a numerous people," a Hebrew Prince and patriarch, surnamed THE FATHER OF THE FAITHFUL; born at Ur, in Chaldea, about 2000 B. c. From him the Israelites and Ishmaelites are descended. Died at the age of one hundred and seventy-five years.

Abranches, de, Alvaro, a patriot and nobleman of Portugal, was a leader in the revolution of 1640, by which the Spaniards were expelled from that country.

Abrantes, MARQUESS OF, a politician of Portugal in the early part of the nineteenth century. Implicated in 1824 in the murder of the Marquess of Loulé, he was sentenced to banishment. Died in England in 1827.

Abrantes, DUKE OF. See JUNOT. Abrial, Joseph André, a lawyer; born at Annonay, France, in 1750. In 1800 he was empowered by the French authorities to form a republican government at Naples. He performed the duties assigned to him with great ability and success. He held the rank of Senator and Count under Napoleon I., and was made a

peer of France by Louis XVIII. | Died 1828.

Absalom, third son of David, King of Israel, distinguished for his personal beauty, is supposed to have been born about 1060 B. C. He raised a rebellion and aspired to his father's throne, but was slain in battle by Joab, the commander of the King's forces.

Acevedo, or Azevedo, Felix Alvarez, a Spanish commander and leader of the revolutionists, in 1820 gained a victory over the royalist forces near Minho. He was soon after killed by the enemy, whom he was approaching under a flag of truce. Achen, or Aachen, van, Johann, a German historical and portrait painter; born at Cologne in 1552. He was patronized by the Elector of Bavaria, and by Emperors Rudolph and Matthias. He amassed great wealth as an artist. Died about 1620. Achillas, an Egyptian military commander who, on the death of Ptolemy Auletes, became regent of Egypt and guardian of Ptolemy XIII. and Cleopatra.

Acier, Michel Victor, a sculptor. Born in France in 1736; died 1799.

Acilius Glabrio, Manius, Consul of Rome 191 B. C.; defeated Antiochus, King of Syria, at Thermopylae, and subsequently reduced the Baotians and Etolians to subjection. A statue of gold was erected to him in Italy.

Ackermann, Rudolph, born in Saxony in 1764; removed to London, where he was celebrated as a dealer in prints and other works of art, and for his rare collections. He published several volumes of colored engravings, and to him is attributed the introduction of the art of lithography into England. Died 1834.

Acosta, or d'Acosta, José, born in Spain about 1539, became a Jesuit and went as a missionary to South America, where he remained seven years. He was distinguished as the author of the Natural and Moral

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History of the Indies, which had an extensive circulation. He was afterward chosen rector of the University of Salamanca. Died 1600.

Acrotatus gained distinction as commander of the forces of Sparta against Pyrrhus in 272 B. c., and ascended the throne of that country on the death of his father, Arens. He was killed in battle about 264 B. C.

Acton, Joseph, the descendant of an Irish family; born at Besançon in 1737. After serving as captain in the Tuscan navy he entered the Neapolitan service, became Minister of Marine and afterward Prime Minister to the King of Naples. He was noted for his bitter hostility to France. Died 1810.

Acuña, de, Don Pedro Bravo, a Spanish soldier and naval officer who, while Governor of the Philippine Islands, wrested the Moluccas from the Dutch and restored them to the Spanish crown. Died 1606.

Adair, John, a Senator and general; born in South Carolina in 1757; removed to Kentucky; fought in the Indian wars in 1791-2-3; was elected to the Senate of the United States in 1805, and served with great credit at the head of the Kentucky troops in 1814 at the battle of New Orleans. He was subsequently Governor of Kentucky and a member of the Lower House of Congress. Died 1840.

Adam was, according to the Books of Moses, the father of the human race, and lived about 4000 B. C.

Adams, Charles Francis, son of John Quincy Adams, sixth President, and grandson of John Adams, second President, of the United States, was born in Boston, August 18, 1807. At the age of two years he was taken to St. Petersburg by his father, who was then Minister to Russia, and afterward, while his father was Minister to Great Britain, attended a boarding-school in England. He returned to America; graduated at Harvard College in 1825; was subsequently