CHAPTER II. THE PARTS OF A PLANT—THE LEAVES (Continued). W. PLEASE to let me recapitulate. We have learned the distinctions of a plant. After considering a whole plant, we next considered its organs. We learned of the root and its parts; of the stem and its parts; and of the leaves and their parts. Ion. And papa said something of the functions of each organ. The root has to suck up fluids; the stem to convey them; and the leaves have to prepare the fluids. We heard how they breath forth one gas and absorb another, and thus render the sap thick and nutritious. P. And we noticed that this change of the watery fluid into nutritious sap is like the DIGESTION of our food into blood. There is also another kind of breathing process. It is not only performed by the leaves, very but by the roots. It is important that this should be known. Several years ago, ignorance of this circumstance caused much fine timber to be destroyed. Some alterations were being made in Hyde Park; and in a part where some fine elm-trees grew a considerable depth of soil was added. This soil, instead of improving the trees, caused them to languish and die; for the roots of the tree, which had grown near to the earth for the purpose of breathing, could not exercise this function through the depth of new earth laid over them.* But we were talking of the leaves. You heard last week of their organs and functions. I also told you that the action of the light upon them caused their green colour. In the book from which I read of the trees in Hyde Park, a remarkable instance is given of the action of the light upon the young trees, as they emerge from the buds. It is said: "It frequently happens in America that clouds and rain darken the atmosphere for several days together; and that during this time the buds of entire forests expand themselves into leaves. These leaves have a pallid hue until the sun appears; when, after a clear sky and sunshine for six hours only, their colour is changed into a beautiful green." A forest is also mentioned on which the sun had not shone for twenty days. "The leaves during this period had reached their full size, but were almost white. One forenoon the sun began to shine in full brightness; the colour of the forest absolutely changed so fast that we could see its progress. middle of the afternoon the whole By the of this extensive forest, many miles in length, presented its usual summer dress." *Carpenter's Vegetable Physiology. I think I have told you why the root of a plant is white, while its stalk is green; and why the stalks of the asparagus are white. Ion. Yes; this happens because the root and asparagusstalk do not receive the sun's light. P. To-day we will notice, 1st, one or two of the extraordinary functions of the leaves; 2ndly, the situation of the leaves on their stem; 3rdly, the difference, size, and forms of leaves; and, 4thly, the appendages of leaves; thus we shall have a good long lesson. L. I am afraid we shall not have time for all that. P. So am I; but to begin. In Dr. Carpenter's Book of Botany he tells us that some leaves have the function of forming buds at their edges. This may be seen in the Bog Orchis, a small plant found in the English marshes. Another in stance of this is seen in one of the tropical plants, a picture of which I have copied for you. single leaf is able to maintain life and grow, and flower without either stem or roots. The leaf may be hung up in a warm damp atmosphere, and the little plants may be seen growing upon it, and spreading their roots into the air for nourishment. W. Well, I think that that is rather wonderful-to live entirely on air-without any help from the earth. P. Some leaves have another singular function. I call them grateful leaves; for, just as the root has supported them, so they support the root. Their function is to collect water from the atmosphere, and convey it to the roots. The most remarkable are those called Pitcherplants, the leaves of which grow in the shape of pitchers. Here is the picture of two which is given in Dr. Carpenter's famous book. Pitcher Plants. One of these pitcher-shaped leaves seems to do more than to supply water. Its interior is covered with long bristly hairs, which point downwards; and at the bottom of the pitcher there is a sweet honey-like substance, which is very attractive to small insects. The insects, therefore, discard the pitcher, which is a very easy thing to do, as the hairs all point downwards; but when they have feasted, if they wish to return, the case is quite different. Directly they try to ascend they are checked by the bristling points of the hairs, and are caught like a rat in a trap. Ion. Poor things! Then they are obliged to stop there in the dark. W. And live upon honey. P. And die there also. This plant is like another, which is well known in the country; it is called the Venus's Fly-trap. Both plants have the remarkable function of supplying animal food to the root. L. Well! That is more wonderful than supplying the root with water. I always thought that the animals lived upon vegetables; I never before heard of a vegetable requiring animal food. P. These plants do, as you say, require animal food; the decayed bodies of the unfortunate insects they catch form a sort of manure, which is really necessary to their prosperity. Plants of this kind have been placed in hot-houses, where there were no insects, but they soon began to languish. They were, however, restored by placing some little bits of meat on their traps; the meat when dissolved answered the same purpose as the insects. There are several other leaves with peculiar functions. We must not forget those of the Sensitive Plant, which you have, no doubt, heard of. L. Yes; if you touch the leaves they instantly curl up, and cause other leaves which they touch to do likewise. Why do they do so? P. The reason of their doing so has been discovered, but to explain it to you would require a close examination of the parts. Their action and that of the fly-trap, which closes suddenly upon the insect, are, I believe, caused in a similar way. I think, however, that we have had enough "lesson" for to-day. were W. But, papa, you going to tell us of four subjects. P. Yes; but I am very tired, so we will leave off until next week. WISHING. Ir wishes were efforts, most men would be great, If wishes were efforts, we all should be wise, We must study for knowledge, or else can have none. THE TUDORS. HENRY VIII. P. I TOLD you that the Pope, the King, and Cardinal Wolsey, upheld the Roman Catholic faith in England, and that Henry was styled THE DEFENDER OF THE FAITH by the Pope. But a terrible quarrel took place between these three powerful men. Henry was married to Catherine of Arragon, a relation of the Emperor of Germany. She had been a very good wife to him for eighteen years, when Henry took notice of one of her maids of honour, named Anne Boleyn. At length, he loved this woman so much, that he wanted her to be his wife instead of Catherine. But he could not put away his old wife without some excuse, so he said that as Catherine had once been the wife of his brother, his marriage with her was unlawful. He therefore told the Pope that he wished the marriage to be dissolved, and asked to have a divorce, by which he meant permission to separate from her. | dared to refuse the king's request, yet he was afraid of the emperor; so he made all kinds of excuses. He sent over a messenger to make inquiries about the marriage, and he kept the king waiting for an answer five years. When trying to persuade the Pope, Henry expected Wolsey to help him. But Wolsey, too, was in a difficulty. He knew that his master was doing wrong, yet he wanted to please him, and the emperor, and the Pope also; so he wished to say as little as possible on the question. This conduct displeased the king exceedingly. At last, when Henry's patience was nearly exhausted, and he wanted very much to marry Anne Boleyn, he was helped out of his difficulty by a young clergyman named Thomas Cranmer. Cranmer said that he ought to waste no more time arguing with the Pope; but to send to all the universities of Europe, and to The Pope, however, did not ask them the plain question, like to do this. He knew that "Can a man marry his wife's it would be wicked to separate sister?" The king, delighted Henry's queen from him, or for at the hint, exclaimed, "The Henry to have a new wife dur- man has got the right sow by ing Catherine's life-time. Be- the ear," and adopted the plan. sides, the Pope knew that the He sent to all the universities; queen was a relation of the and by bribery he obtained Emperor of Germany. He from them votes in his favour. knew, too, that the emperor He also received Cranmer into would be offended at such a favour, who continued his step, and he was therefore in a great difficulty. He hardly reign. friend during the rest of his With the votes from the universities, and the help of Cranmer, Henry dared to carry out his wishes without the sanction of the Pope,-he put away his wife Catherine, and privately married Anne Boleyn. When Anne Boleyn became queen, Catherine retired into private life; so, when Henry made Cranmer his friend, he cast off Wolsey. Before his marriage with Anne Boleyn, he forgot all Wolsey's services, disgraced him, and arrested him for high treason. The poor disappointed Wolsey could not bear such treatment; on "his way to London to be tried, he was taken ill, and died. In his last words he spoke well of his master, but his conscience told him that his service to the king had been a wicked one. "Had I but served GOD," he cried, "as diligently as I have served the king, He would not have given me over in my grey hairs." Henry had now got rid of Wolsey, and he next cast off the Pope. When the Pope heard of his marriage, he pronounced sentence that Catherine was his only lawful wife, and that he must take her back again, or be punished. So Henry had to give up either his wife Anne, or his friend the Pope; and he chose the latter course. opening to the truth; and, how many had lost their respect for the Pope. Thus Henry found many of the nation ready to carry out his views. In 1534, before the Pope's sentence had reached England, or was known, the English Parliament met, and threw off all subjection to the power of Rome. They abolished the Pope's power in England; they said that the king only had the right to appoint all bishops; they declared that it was illegal to appeal to the Pope; they forbade any more tribute, or any kind of payment to be sent to Rome, and said that all such money was in future to be paid to the king. In addition, they declared Henry to be "THE HEAD OF THE CHURCH," instead of the Pope. The nation were required to take a new oath of obedience to the king, called the oath of supremacy, which nearly all did with joy. Thus was the Church of England separated from the Church of Rome. It was soon found, however, that the new head which had been put on the Church did not quite suit the body. There were two reasons for this-first, HENRY, the head, was altogether whimsical and cruel, while the body (consisting of ignorant monks and clergy) was in a terrible state of corruption. In separating from the Pope, To tell you of Henry's whims Henry found that he must also and tyranny would take a long separate himself and his country time. Although he was the from the Church, of which he Pope's enemy he was no friend had been styled "the defender." to the reformer Martin Luther; I told you how the eyes of the so he began to show his power people had been gradually by punishing most severely |