5. Grand-duke Paul, born September 21 (October 3), 1860; married, June 5 (June 17), 1889, to Princess Alexandra, daughter of the King of Greece. Offspring: a daughter, Marie, born April 6 (18) 1890. Uncles and Aunts of the Emporer.-I. Grand-duke Constantine, brother of the late Emporer Alexander II; born September 9 (September 21), 1827; high-admiral of the Russian navy; married August 30 (September 11), 1848, to Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Altenburg, of which union there are issue five children:-1. Nicholas, born February 2 (February 14), 1850. 2. Olga, born August 22 (September 3), 1851, and married October 27, 1867, to Georgios I, King of the Hellenes. 3. Vera, born February 4 (February 16), 1854, and married May 8, 1874, to Prince Eugene of Würtemberg; widow January 15, 1877. 4. Constantine, born August 10 (August 22), 1858, married April 15 (April 27), 1884, to Princess Elizabeth of Saxe-Altenburg, Duchess of Saxony, three children :-John, born July 6, 1886; Gabriel, born July 15, 1887; Tatina, born January 23, 1890. 5. Dimitri, born June 1 (June 13), 1860.

II. Grand-duke Nicholas, brother of the preceedicg, born July 27 (August 8), 1831; field-marshal in the Russian army and inspector-general of cavalry and the corps of engineers; married January 25 (February 6), 1856, to Princess Alexandra of Oldenburg, of which marriage there are two sons:-1. Nicholas, born November 6 (November 18), 1856. 2. Peter, born January 10 (January 22), 1864; married July 26 (August 7), 1889, to the Princess Militsa of Montenegro.

III. Grand-duke Michael, born October 13 (October 25), 1832; field-marshal in the Russian army; married August 16 (August 28), 1857, to the Princess Cecilia of Baden, of which union there are issue seven children:-1. Nicholas, born April 14 (April 26), 1859. 2. Anastasia, born July 16 (July 28), 1860, and married January 12 (January 24), 1879, to Prince Friedrich Franz of MecklenburgSchwerin. 3. Michael, born October 4 (October 16), 1861. 4. George, born August 11 (August 23), 1863. 5. Alexander, born April I (April 13), 1866. 6. Sergius, born September 25 (October 7), 1869. 7. Alexis, born December 16 (December 28), 1875.

IV. Grand-duches Olga, sister of the late Emporer Alexander II; born August 30 (September 11), 1822; married July 1 (July 13), 1846, to Prince Karl, then heir-apparent, now King, of Würtemberg.

The reigning family of Russia descend, in the female line, from Michael Romanof, elected Tsar in 1613, after the extinction of the House of Rurik; and in the male line from the Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp, born in 1701, scion of the younger branch of the princely family of Oldenburg. The union of his daughter Anne with Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottory formed part of the great reform project of Peter I, intended to bring Russia into closer contact with the western states of Europe. Peter I. was succeeded by his second wife, Catherine, the daughter of a Livonian peasant, and she by Peter II. the grandson of Peter, with whom the main line of the Romanofs terminated, in the year 1730. The reign of the next three sovereigns of Russia, Ann, Ivan VI, and Elizabeth, of the female line of Romanof, formed a transition period, which came to an end with the accession of Peter III. of the house of HolsteinGottorp. All subsequent emporers, without exception, connected themselves by marriage with German families. The wife and successor of Peter III. Catherine II. daughter of the Prince of Anhalt Zerbst, general in the Prussian army, left the crown to her only son, Paul, who became the father of two emporers, Alexander I. and Nicholas, and

the grandfather of a third, Alexander II. Al these sovereigns married German princesses, creating intimate family alliances, among others, with the reigning houses of Würtemberg, Baden and Prussia.

The emperor is in possession of the revenue from the Crown domains, consisting of more than a million square miles of cultivated land and forests, besides gold and other mines in Siberia, and producing a vast revenue, the actual amount of which is, however, unknown, as no reference to the subject is made in the budgets or finance accounts, the Crown domains being considered the private property of the imperial family.

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.-A complete list of the emperors of Russia, and a detailed description of its constitution and government are given in the Britannica. The title emperor was adopted in 1721. The succession to the throne is primogeniture, preference being given to the male heirs. Another fundamental law of the realm is that every sovereign of Russia with his consort and children must be a member of the Orthodox Greek Church. The princess and princesses of the imperial house, according to a degree of Alexander I., must obtain the consent of the emperor to any marriage they may contract; otherwise the issue of such union cannot inherit the throne. By an ancient law of Russia, the heir-apparent is held to be of age at the end of the sixteenth year; and the other members of the reigning family with the completed twentieth year.

The administration of the empire is entrusted to four great boards, or councils, possessing separate functions. The first of these boards is the Council of the State, established in its present form by Alexander I., in the year of 1810. It consists of a president, and an unlimited number of members appointed by the emperor. In 1889 the council consisted of 60 members, exclusive of the ministers, who have a seat ex officio.

The chief function of the council of the empire is that of examining into the projects of laws which are brought before it by the ministers, and of discussing the budget and all the expenditures to be made during the year. But the council has no power of proposing alterations and modifications of the laws of realm; it is, properly speaking, a consultative institution in matters of legislation. A special department is intrusted with the discussion of the requests addressed to the en peror against the decisions of the senate.

The second of the great colleges or boards of government is the Ruling Senate or "Pravitelstvuyuschiy Senat." The functions of the senate are partly deliberative and partly executive in character. To be valid a law must be proclaimed by the senate. It is also a high court of justice for the empire.

The third college, established by Peter I. in the year of 1721, is the Holy Synod, and to it is committed the superintendence of the religious affairs of the empire. It is composed of the three metropolitans (St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kieff), the archbishops.

The fourth board of government is the Committee of Ministers. It consists of all the ministers, who

are

1. The Ministry of the Imperial House.-General Count Vorontzoff-Dashkoff, aide-de-camp of the emperor; appointed Minister of the Imperial House, in succession to Count Alexander Adlerberg, March 20, 1881.

2. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs.-Actual Privy Councillor Nicolas Calovitch De Giers; appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs, April, 1882.

3. The Ministry of War.-General Vannovski, aide-de-camp of the Emperor; appointed Minister of War, March 29, 1881.

4. The Ministry of the Navy.- Vice-Admiral Tchikhatchoff, appointed December, 1888.

5. The Ministry of the Interior.-Actual Privy Councillor Durnovo, appointed May 18, 1889.

6. The Ministry of Public Instruction.-Actul Privy Councillor Delyanoff, appointed 1882.

7. The Ministry of Finance.-Privy Councillor Vyshnegradsky, appointed 1887.

8. The Ministry of Justice.-Senator Privy Councillor Manasein, appointed November 19, 1885.

9. The Ministry of the State's Domains.-Actual Privy Councillor Ostrovsky, appointed 1881.

10. The Ministry of Public Works and Railways. -Privy Councillor von Hübbenet, appointed April, 1889.

11. The Department of General Control.-Actual Privy Councillor Filipoff, appointed ComptrollerGeneral, 1889.

The post of minister and state secretary for Finland remains vacant since the death of Baron Brunn (1888).

Most of the above heads of departments have assistant ministers who supply their place on cer

During the years 1883-6 the institutions of the zemstvo were in force in 34 provinces (361 districts; of European Russia. The number of electors was: 40,172 landowners, 48,091 urban_population, and 196,773 peasants. As to the number of votes given to the above electors, it appears that 64 per cent.. of all votes belong to peasants, 12 per cent. to nobles, 10 per cent. to merchants, 5 per cent. to the clergy, and 4 per cent. to artisans. Of the 13,196 elected members of the assemblies of the zemstvos, 35 per cent. belonged to the nobility, 15 per cent. to the class of the "merchants," and 38 per cent. to the peasantry. The executives of the zemstvos (the "upravas") have 1,263 members, out of whom two-thirds are peasants in East Russia, while in Middle Russia from two-thirds to three-quarters of the members are nobles. The 34 provincial executives have 137 members (98 nobles, 21 officials, 9 merchants, 3 artisans, and 2 peasants).

The Baltic provinces have some institutions for self government of their own. These have, however, been gradually curtailed; and the privileges of the provinces in police and school matters, chiefly vested in the nobility, have been taken away by a law of June 21, 1888, the judicial and police rights of the landlords having been trans

tain occasions. They all communicate directly with the sovereign.

The emperor has two private cabinets, one of which is occupied with charitable affairs, and the other is devoted to public instruction of girls and to the administration of the institutions established by the late Empress Maria, mother of the Emperor Nicholas I. Besides, there is the imperial headquarters (Glavnaia Kvartira), and a cabinet, which is entrusted also with the reception of petitions presented to the emperor, formerly received by a special court of requests (abolished in 1884). According to a law of May 19, 1888, a special imperial cabinet having four sections (administrative, economical, agricultural and manufacturing, and legislative) has been created, instead of the same departments in the ministry of imperial household.

The empire is divided into general governments, or vice-royalties, governments and districts. There are at present in European Russia (including Poland and Finland) sixty-eight governments, with 635 districts (uyezd), two otdyels, and one okrug, also considered as separate governments. For a full description of the local governments see Britan

nica.

The local administration in the districts or provinces is largely in the hands of the zemstvos elected by the peasantry, the householders in towns, and the landed proprietors.

ferred to functionaries nominated by the state. By a law of July 21, 1889, the last vestiges of manorial justice and of tribunals under the Germanspeaking nobility have been abolished, but the Law of Justice of 1864, which is in force in Russia, has been but partially applied to the provinces, so as to maintain the administration of justice under the central government. The Russian language has been rendered obligatory in the official correspondence of all parish, municipal, and provincial administration; so also is the Dorpat University, which was deprived in December, 1889, of its privileges of self-government, and the gymnasia in 1890.

AREA AND POPULATION.-The Russian Empire comprises one-seventh of the land-surface of the globe, and covers, with internal waters, an area of 8,644,100 English square miles. There has been no general census of the population since 1859, but various enumerations, chiefly made by the statistical committees, furnish an approximately correct return of the people. According to these, the total population of the empire numbered in 1887, 113,354,649 inhabitants.

The growth of the population during the intervals of the official estimates since 1859 is shown by the above table.

The following table shows the area and population by provinces, as reported in the official estimates of 1887:

The amount of money in the treasury on Jan. 1, 1890, was 465,095,803 roubles. Deducting this sum from the debt leaves the net debt on Jan. 1, 1890, at 5,060,144,197 roubles. At this writing (1891) ten paper roubles are equal in value to one pound sterling or about $5 in United States currency.

On Feb. 8, 1890, a new 4 per cent. loan was concluded, through ihe International and Discount Bank, to the amount of 90,000,000 roubles (360,000,000 francs), for the redemption of the 5 per cent. The bonds are redeemable in eighty years, and are free of every tax or duty. The price of issue will be 93 per cent. Another 4 per cent. loan, to the amount of 5,000,000 gold roubles, or 11,865,000l., was concluded on March 21, 1890, for the redemption of the 5 per cent loan of 1862. The bonds are redeem. able in 81 years.

DEFENSE-ARMY.-The Russian army has been entirely reörganized since the Turkish war. Since the modification of the laws, June 26, 1888, the service has been organized as follows:

Out of more than 850,000 young men reaching every year their 21st year, about 250,000 are taken into the active army, and the remainder are inscribed partly in the reserve and partly in the 2nd reserve, or "Zapas." The period of service is, in European Russia, five years in the active army (in reality reduced by furloughs to 4 years), 13 years in the reserve and 5 years in the "Zapas;" 7 years in active army and 6 years in the reserve in the Asiatic dominions; and 3 years in the active army and 15 years in the reserve in Caucasia. In case of need the minister of war has the right of keeping the men for another six months under the colors.

Certain privileges are granted on account of education, and clergymen are exempt, as also doctors and teachers.

In 1888, out of the 862,254 young men liable to military service, 19,807 (4,024 Jews) did not appear; 143,737 were found too weak for military service; about 200,000 inscribed in the 2nd reserve as being single workers in their families, and 249,087 were taken into the army, besides 2,400 Caucasian natives, out of 29,490 liable to service. The contingent for 1889 was 255,000 men, besides 2,400 Caucasians. The men inscribed in the reserve troops are convoked for drill six weeks twice a year,

The "Zapas," formerly a simple militia, was reörganized in 1888, and the duration of the service prolonged to 43 years instead of 40. It is divided into two parts. The first part has the character of reserve troops, and includes all those who have passed through active service, as also those who have not been taken into the active army, though able-bodied. It is intended chiefly to complete the active troops in time of war, and enables Russia to call out, in case of need, 19 classes of drilled conscripts. The second part, or opoltchenie (including all able-bodied men who have served in the first division, as also those liberated from service as not fully able-bodied, or being single workers in their families), can be called out only by an imperial manifesto and only for organizing corps of militia.

On a peace footing the army is supposed to contain 1,920 field officers, 865 officers in military schools, and 812,078 men, a total of 814,000 actual soldiers. According to the estimates of an intelligent officer of high rank the figures now represent.

THE RUSSIAN NAVY.-The imperial navy, on Jan. 1, 1891, consisted of the Baltic fleet; that of the Black Sea; the fleets of the Aral and Caspain seas; and the Siberian fleet. The total comprised 208 armed steam vessels (of which 32 were ironclads, and 139 torpedo boats) with an armament of 1,348 guns. The navy was commanded by 99 admirals, vice-admirals, rear-admiral, and generals, 1,350 captains, lieutenant, and mid-shipmen. Besides the above, 1,986 officers of various grades belonging to special branches of the navy, such as pilots, engineers, artillerists, were borne on the active list. The effective number of sailors of the imperial navy during the same period serving afloat was 27,096. They are, like the soldiers of the army, levied by recruitment. The period of service in the navy is ten years, seven of which must be spent in active service and three in the service.

Until 1886, the most powerful vessel completed for the Russian ironclad fleet was the mastless turret-ship Peter the Great. She resembles in design and construction the great mastless turretships of the British navy, more especially the Dreadnought of the British navy, though of larger size, her length being 330 feet, and extreme breadth 634 feet. The three ironclad ships, the Tchesma, Catherine II., and Sinope, are still more powerful vessels than the Peter the Great. They are all of the same dimensions, which are:-Length between perpendiculars, 320 feet; extreme breadth, 69 feet; mean draught, 26 feet. The armor of the Sinope has a thickness of from 16 to 18 inches above the belt, and 12 inches in the casemates. It will be armed with 2 12-inch guns (50 tons), the range of which is supposed to be 13 miles. The Nicholas I. and the Alexander II. are also formidable vessels. Both these vessels are sister-ships, 326 feet long and 67 feet broad. The Nicholas I. is protected by a belt 8 feet wide and 14 to 4 inches thick, with a 12-inch backing of wood. It is armed with 2 12-inch,4 9-inch, and 8 6-inch guns, besides 10 2-inch and a number of smaller rapid-firing guns and torpedo-ejectors, and has a steel turret with 10-inch armor. sister-ship to both these was begun in 1887, and two others in 1889, at Nikolaieff and Sebastopol.

A new

Next to these ships come the five belted cruisers. The Duke of Edinburgh and the General-Admiral are each 270 feet long between perpendiculars, and 48 feet broad, built of iron sheathed with wood. The battery deck of these cruisers is not protected by armor, the guns being so arranged as to fire in all directions. The Minin, converted into an ocean cruiser in 1878, is 299 feet long and 49 feet broad. The Vladimir, Monomakh and Dmitri Donskoi, are sister-ships, and are 295 feet along the water-line, with an extreme breadth of 52 feet; draught of

water at stern 25 feet. The Admiral Nakhimoff (14 guns) has been found needing alterations, amounting almost to complete reconstruction.

Next in the list of sea-going cruisers stand the four ironclads named after admirals-i. e. the Admiral Tchitchagoff, Admiral Spiridoff, Admiral Greig and Admiral Lazareff. They are turret-ships of the type of the Prince Albert in the Royal navy, the turrets being encased in 6- and 4-inch armour. The Kniaz-Pojarski is a central-battery belted ship, 272 feet long, 49 feet broad, and is fully rigged.

The belted cruiser Pamyat Azova, or Remembrance of Azoff, is 378 feet long.

In 1889 a new ironclad ship, Navarin, was begun building at St. Petersburg, as well as two ironclads on the Black Sea, Trekh Svyatitelei and Twelve Apostles; two torpedo boats, Hochland and Nargen, at Abo; the torpedo-cruiser Kazarsky and 2 torpedo-boats, Adler and Anakria, at Elbing, for the Black Sea fleet. The Gangut, built at St. Petersburg, has a length of 278 feet and a beam of 62 feet, and is armed with 9 big guns.

The Volunteer Fleet, destined for commerce and transport of exiles to Sakhalin in time of peace, and for war purposes in time of war, numbers 7 cruisers.

COMMERCE-IMPORTS AND EXPORTS.-In 1889, the total exports were valued in gold at 766,300,000 roubles; imports, 436,987,000 roubles.

The sea-going commercial navy (including vessels of 100 tons and upwards) of Russia consisted in the year 1890 of 236 steamers, of 156,070 gross tons, and 945 sailing vessels, of 271,265 net tons. About one-fourth of the vessels were engaged in trading to foreign countries, and the remainder coasting vessels, many of them belonging to Greeks, sailing under the Russian flag.

The chief Russian fair is that of Nijni Novgorod. In 1890 the goods shipped to the fair were valued at 181,256,830 roubles, as against 193,371,165 roubles in 1888. Of that there remained unsold goods to the value of 7,039,840 roubles (13,914,632 roubles in 1888.) The chief items were: Russian cottons, 28,713,500 roubles; woolen goods, 15,955,430 roubles; linen and hemp goods, 4,235,375 roubles; silk and silk goods, 2,546,750 roubles; furs, 8,443,605 roubles; leather and leather ware, 7,660,915 roubles. Metals: 22,312,508 roubles; of which; brass goods, 1,782,100 roubles; iron and steel, 15,395,224 roubles; iron and steel goods, 3,643,132 roubles; glass and earthenware, 6,255,350 roubles.

AGRICULTURE.-The number of foreign landholders in Poland reached 32,243 (29,370 Prussian) in 1885, as against 570 by the end of the previous decade; their aggregate holdings reached 2,361,000 acres.. But, according to a law passed in March, 1887, the acquisition of land in Poland and Southwestern Russia is forbidden to aliens-the aliens now owning land there being bound either to sell their estates in five years to Russian subjects, or to become naturalized Russian subjects themselves.

About two-fifths of the land suitable for cultivation in Russia proper is held by the Crown; one-fourth by landed proprietors; and nearly onethird by the peasantry. Thirty-six per cent. of the population are landed proprietors; 22,396,069 male peasants held in village communities 252,103,000 acres of land of which communities had purchased 2,059,268 acres; moreover, there were 481,358 private land proprietors, holding altogether 252,102,000 acres of land, distributed as follows:-Nobility, 114,480 landholders, 197,156,500 acres; "merchants" and artisans, 70,634 landholders, 31,569,700 acres ; peasants, 278,179 landholders, 15,195,100 acres; various, 18,065 landholders, 3,377,900 acres; and