19. ABRAHAM LINCOLN, of Illinois, was elected President in 1860, by a majority of one hundred and twenty-nine votes over John Bell, of Tennessee, John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, and Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, who received respectively seventytwo, thirty-nine, and twelve.

20. ABRAHAM LINCOLN was reëlected President in 1864, by a majority of one hundred and ninety-one votes over George B. McClellan, of Ohio, took the oath of office March 4th, 1865, and died on the 14th of April of the same year.

ANDREW JOHNSON, of Tennessee, was elected VicePresident on the Lincoln ticket, and took the oath of office, and, on the death of Mr. Lincoln, became President, under the constitution, and was sworn in as President on the 15th of April, 1865, and served until March 3d, 1869.

21. ULYSSES S. GRANT, of Illinois, was elected President in 1868, by a majority of one hundred and thirty-four votes over Horatio Seymour, of NewYork, and took the oath of office on the 4th of March, 1869.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

THE DEPARTMENTS.

A DEPARTMENT is not defined, but is contemplated by the constitution, in which it is three times mentioned. It is a division of government business over which the head, by law, exercises exclusive control, subject only to the supervision and direction of the President. It is the law alone which establishes the divisions and their boundaries, which has assigned, under the President, foreign affairs to the State Department, the revenues and finances to the Treasury, the business of the army to the War, and of national ships to the Navy, the Indian, land, pension, and patent matters to the Interior, and that concerning mail affairs to the Post-Office Department. Congress is authorized to vest the appointment of inferior officers in the heads of departments.

The President may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, for his consideration.

A very large portion of the duties of each department are subdivided and allotted to bureaus acting under them. The heads of departments form the

highest class of executive officers, next to the President, and the heads of bureaus form the second; each, by law, having distinct duties assigned to him, which will be hereafter given.

The persons having charge of these great divisions of the government are often called

"THE CABINET."

This word is not found in the constitution or laws. Cabinet is a French word, meaning a small room in which consultations were had, and was subsequently extended to those who held consultations in such places, and was finally applied to the governing council of the country. In England, the ministers are ex-officio members of the governing council, often called cabinet ministers, having the responsibility of public affairs. Following English precedents, our heads of departments are often erroneously spoken of as "ministers" and "cabinet ministers," and collectively "the Cabinet," although their relations to the public and their responsibility are wholly different from those of the English ministry.

They attend a meeting at the President's office twice a week, and oftener if specially called, for consultation upon such business as may be presented by the President, or either of them.

These consultations are considered confidential, and it is deemed a breach of duty and honor to make them public without the express consent of the President. But what transpires there is often soon

known over the whole country. All accounts relating to collecting and disbursing the public revenues are among executive duties. They also include the execution of the decisions and decrees of the federal courts, the suppression of insurrection, and foreign interExecutive duties include all the operations of the federal government, except what is committed to Congress and the judiciary. Their enumeration. would fill volumes.

To aid the President in the performance of these duties, departments and bureaus have been established, and thousands of offices created, and these employ other heads and hands to assist them. All these will be considered in the proper place.

CHAPTER XXIX.

THE BUREAUS.

In

ORIGINALLY the word bureau signified merely a large writing-table. It was then extended to the place where writing and business was done. Europe, it means the same as department with us. But in England and the United States, it is applied to the transaction of business, principally writing, in subordination to, or under the control of, a superior branch or division of the government. With us, bureaus perform as important services as the departments under which they act. The management of our banking system, the issuing stocks and treasury notes, the custody of our money, the settlement of all accounts, keeping books showing the income and outgoes of the government, and many other important matters, are intrusted to bureaus. Their business is not subordinate, although done under the supervision of a higher official.

In the Treasury, Interior, War, and Navy Departments there are numerous bureaus, the heads of which are appointed by the President, with the consent of the Senate, and hold office during his pleasure.

The duties of these offices require them to be filled