fore, to assume nothing more than irritability, or the power of responding to a stimulus by a definite movement, to explain the activities of Paramecium" (II). The long catalogue of psychical qualities required to account for the movements of Paramecium is thus reduced to simple protoplasmic irritability. The method by which Paramecia collect in the regions of influences of a certain character and leave other regions empty, may be stated in general terms as follows: Certain stimuli cause in the animals random motions, in which the direction is frequently changed, especially at the moment when the stimulus begins to act. These random movements result, through the laws of chance, if continued long enough, in carrying the Paramecia out of the region of influence of the agent causing the stimulus. Coming thus by chance into a region where such movements are not caused, the Paramecia remain; if this ineffective area is small, the Paramecia are crowded together within it and give the impression of being strongly attracted by it.

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"It is evident that we have in this case as near the reaction postulated by Spencer and Bain for a primitive organismnamely, random movements in response to any stimulus-as is likely to be found in any organism. The motions are strictly random in character so far as the position of the source of stimulus is concerned. . And by the repetition of the reaction the direction of movement is frequently changed, always without reference to the localization of the stimulus. It appears not to have been foreseen theoretically that such random movements would of themselves, if continued, carry the animal out of the sphere of influence of the agent causing them and keep it from re-entering. To accomplish this result it is only necessary that the direction of motion should be changed at the moment when the stimulus begins to act and at intervals so long as it continues" (II).

An examination of the activities of a number of other unicellular organisms in the light of the observations above detailed shows that they react in essentially the same manner. For each organism a simple statement can be given for the reaction to any stimulus. For Spirostomum ambiguum the reaction is as follows: the animal contracts, swims backward, turns toward the aboral side, and swims forward. Stentor polymorphus contracts, swims backward, turns toward the right side, and swims forward. A number of flagellates also have been found to have such a fixed method of reaction. In all these cases the direction of motion has no relation to the position of the source of stimulus, and the conclusions to be drawn for Paramecium apply equally to these organisms.

In regard to the position in the psychological scale to be as

signed to Paramecium the following may be said: The reactions of Paramecium are, as we have seen, comparable in all essentials to those of an isolated muscle. In neither case has the direction of motion any relation to the position of the source of stimulus. Reaction in such a manner as to show a relation to the position of the stimulating agent has rightly been regarded as a first and lowest step in perception; this lowest step is quite lacking in Paramecium. Moreover, Paramecium has no "life history" in the sense of a change in its reactions such as between the reactions of a young and an adult higher animal. An individual undergoing division reacts exactly like the ordinary Paramecium, as do likewise the halves immediately after division. In the words of Professor Baldwin, "the fact of life history is just what distinguishes an organism from what is a mechanical arrangement.' While we cannot deny that Paramecium is an organism, this fact shows the machine-like nature of its activities. An animal that learns nothing, that exercises no choice in any respect, that is attracted by nothing and repelled by nothing, that reacts entirely without reference to the position of external objects, that has but one reaction for the most varied stimuli, can hardly be said to have made the first step in the evolution of mind, and we are not compelled to assume consciousness or intelligence in any form to explain its activities.

A STUDY OF ANGER.

By G. STANLEY HALL.

Psychological literature contains no comprehensive memoir on this very important and interesting subject. Most text-books treat it either very briefly or not at all, or enumerate it with fear, love, etc., as one of the feelings, sentiments or emotions which are discussed collectively. Where it is especially studied, it is either in an abstract, speculative way, as in ethical works, or descriptively as in books on expression or anthropology or with reference to its place in some scheme or tabulation of the feelings, as in many of the older works on psychology or phrenology, or with special reference to some particular and partial theory as in the Lange-James discussions, or its expressions are treated in the way of literary characterizations as in novels, poetry, epics, etc., or finally its morbid and perhaps hospital forms are described in treatises on insanity. Observers of childhood, like Darwin, Taine, Preyer, Perez, Baldwin, Mrs. Moore, Miss Shinn, Sully and many others sometimes ignore it as too painful a trait to be fully described by fond parents or relatives, or briefly characterize single outbreaks, or special features in a single child. The outlook and the reactionary stages are sometimes confused, and there is nowhere any conception of the vast diversities of its phenomena in different individuals; so that we find not only great divergence but the most diametrical contradiction in describing its typical physical expressions. In some, e. g., Stanley, it is sui generis and unique from the start; and for others, e. g., Mantegazza, it shades by imperceptible gradations over into fear and love with few characteristics solely its own. Its physiological basis may be blood composition, digestive or hepatic changes in vascular contractions, abnormal secretions, non-removal of waste or toxic products, over lability of central nerve cells, reflex muscle tension, etc. At present the general subject of anger is a tumbling ground for abstract analysis and a priori speculation, which must be gradually cleared up if psychology is to advance from the study of the will to the feeling. Just now the chief obstacle to this advance is strangely enough the Lange-James theory, the general acceptance of which, puerile as it is in view of the vastness and complexity of the field, would do for this general tendency of psychology a dis-service comparable only with that which Descartes's catchy

dictum, that animals were mere automata, did for the advance of comparative psychology in his day.

I have collected the following, far from exhaustive list of English bearing on this state, additions to which in English or other languages also rich in such terms, are invited.

Acrimonious: sharp, pungent, biting.

Aggrieved: made heavy, severe, looded.

Affronted: confronted offensively.

Angry: root ang straightened, troubled. Angor, strangling. Angere, to choke, stifle. Arxio-throttle. Awe and ugly have the same root, and ache is related, as are anxious and anguish. Other etymologies closely relate it to fear.

Animosity: hostile spirit, more vehement and less lasting than enmity. Antagonistic: to a foe or adversary opponent.

Antipathy: instinctive and involuntary dislike, repugnance, distaste, disgust.

Aversion: turning from.

Bitter: biting, cutting, sharp, referring to the sense of taste.
Boiling: as a fluid from heat. Temper has a boiling point.

Breakout: restraint or inhibition giving way. Cf. ausgelassen, not peculiar to anger.

Brood: to incubate, nurse, keep warm.

Chagrin: mortify, keenly vex as at disappointment.

Chafe: as when the epidermis is worn off to the quick.

Choleric: from Latin and Greek, cholera gall, bile. The liver was long regarded as the seat of anger and of love.

Contempt: scorn, despise, mépris.

Crabbed: scratch, claw, wayward in gait, not letting go.

Cross-curly, crimped, crooked. Cf. a "crook" in body or mind, cross-grained.

Cruel: morally crude, and from the same root, pitiless, loving to inflict suffering.

Crusty: brittle, short.

Curt: short and sharp.

Dander up: dandruff, scurf, ruffled temper.

Defiant: renouncing faith or allegiance, and challenging.

Demoniacal: possessed by an evil spirit.

Displeased: designating all degrees of being offended.

Enmity: inimical to an enemy.

Evil: exceeding limits, bad, depraved, vicious, not peculiar to anger.

Fierce often used for anger. Ferus (wild savage) cognate with fera (wild beast). Cf. wild with rage, savage resentment, mad as a hornet, angry as a bull, cross as a bear.

Fight: fighty.

Flare up: Cf. blaze out, inflame.

Fit: spasm, convulsion, spell, not peculiar to anger.

Fractious: fret, rebellious, warmly restive, easily broken.

Frantic: phrenetic, very excited, not peculiar to anger.

Frenzy: same root as frantic.

Fretty: abrasion, corrosion, chafing.

Fume: to smoke. Cf. thumos, spirit, anger.

Fury: storm of anger, possessed by the furies.

Gall: ref. to liver as seat of anger.

Glum: frown, stare, sullen.

Grim: stern, forbidding, severe, angry.

Gritty: sharp, grains of sand, pluck.

Grouty: turbid as liquor, dreggy, roily, surly.

Grudge: crumble, crush, ill will and envy.

Gruff: rough.

=

Grumpy: Cf. grim and many Teutonic words. Gram to rage, roar, akin to sorrow, and related to grin, groan, grumble, make a noise. Haste: too quick wrath or temper.

Hate: aversion, extreme detestation, repugnance.
Hostile: with enmity, antagonistic.

Hot: warm, heated.

Huffy: puffed, swelled with rage.

Impatient: the opposite of patience and long suffering.
Indignant: at the unworthy or mean.

Inflamed: a thermal analogy, combustible. Cf. flare up.

Insane: unwell, anger is a brief insanity. Cf. mad.

Ire: irascible, iracund.

Irritable: excitable, chiefly applied to temper.

Mad: a mad state, furious.

Malevolent: willing or wishing evil.

Malice: malus, bad, with ill will, malicious.

Malignity: Cf. malign, producing malice.

Morose: fretful.

Mucky: like muck, nasty, of temper.

Nasty: used of bad temper.

Nettled: stung with nettles.

Obstinate: standing against.

Offended: struck against.

Old Adam: aroused.

Passionate: of any passion but prominently of anger.
Peevish: feebly fretful, literally crying as a child.

Pet: Cf. pettish, as a spoiled child or pet.

Petulant: in a little pet.

Piqued: pricked, stung, nettled, angered.

Possessed: as if by a bad spirit.

Provoked: called out, incited to anger.

Put out: as of gear, off his nut, trolley, etc.

Putchy: New England for touchy.

Quarrelsome: prone to contend, also querulous.

Rage: Cf. rabies: a furious degree of anger.

Rancid: spoiled, tainted, rank, applied to butter.

Rancor: Cf. rancid, something that rankles.

Raving mad: as a horse, also roaring mad.

Refractory: breaking away.

Repugnance: contradiction, fighting against.

Resent: to have strong feeling against or take offense.

Retaliate: pay back in like.

Revenge: requite, retribution.

Riled: as mud stirred up in water.

Ructious: (belching) is widely used in New England of angry states.

Ruffled: hair or plumage towsled or stroked the wrong way.

Savage: like beasts or barbaric men.

Scorn: literally mockery, disdain, despise.

Sharp: used of temper.

Snarly: as of a dog.

Snappish: short, crusty, tart, disposed to bite.

Sore: literally aching, morbidly tender or irritable.

Sour: acid, mordant, the sours.

Spite: petty ill will.'

Spitfire: a hot tempered person.

Splenetic: the spleen was supposed by the ancients to be the seat of

anger.