tutions of learning, and one from the teachers of the common schools (volksschulen). The cantonal school-board exercises supervision over all educational institutions, and carries out all existing laws, ordinances, and regulations. For this purpose it places itself in the necessary connection with the subordinate boards and officers.

Among these are, in the first place, the circuit school-boards, of which there are eleven in the canton, with nine to twenty members, according to the number of schools in the circuit. Three of the members of each circuit board are elected by the teachers of the circuit, the remainder by the voters of the circuit. These exercise supervision over the schools of the circuit, conduct the examinations at the close of the school-year, and furnish reports of the schools and teachers to the Educational Council, and to the communal boards of education. Each school-district elects its own communal school-board; the only limitation in regard to membership is that there must be at least five members. The teachers take part in their deliberations, but have no vote; they may, however, be elected to full membership by the commune. If a district has a very great number of teachers (as, e. g., Zürich and Winterthur), the teachers are represented by delegates in the district boards. In this case the teachers meet in convention for the discussion of various questions pertaining to the schools, and of propositions to be made to their school-board. They elect from their number a presiding officer, who also represents them in the board. All these teachers have the same rights, duties, and salaries; for his work as representative of the teachers in the communal board, the presiding officer receives a small additional compensation.

The communal board has the inspection of schools of the commune, and carries out the regulations of the school-law and the ordinances of the superior boards. It takes the necessary introductory steps for filling vacancies (the people elect the teachers), and superintends the reception, attendance, and dismissals of pupils. It watches over faithfulness in the discharge of duties on the part of the teachers. In case of incompetence or other disability and of gross neglect of duty, it presents changes or makes necessary announcements to the circuit board for further disposal. On the other hand, it has to assist the teacher in all proper effort, and to see to it that he is regularly and fully paid. Its members visit the schools of their commune, in suitable rotation, in order to observe the instruction and to examine the registers. In the presence of the pupils, no inspector is permitted to reprove the teacher, or to warn him.

The communal school-boards furnish annually statistical reports concerning the status of the schools intrusted to them, containing any recommendations they may deem proper to make. Every

three years they furnish a comprehensive report of the status of their schools, apparatus, buildings, etc. In addition to this, the educational director calls, every year, delegates of the eleven district-boards to a conference with the Educational Council, when educational questions of general interest are discussed; the director, or principal of the Cantonal Normal School, is a member or these conferences.

A further factor in the school organism of Zürich is the school-synod. It consists of all the teachers of the canton, from the meanest village school-master to the rector of the university. The members of the school-boards are entitled to participate in the deliberations, but not to vote. The Educational Council is represented by two members in the synod. It holds ordinarily one meeting every year; but extraordinary meetings may be called by the Educational Council in obedience to its own resolutions, or upon the request of the teachers of four of the circuits. The synod determines upon the places of meeting. Every synod is preceded by a preliminary meeting, consisting of the officers of the synod (elected for two years), by one representative from each of the eleven circuits; from the higher schools of Zürich and Winterthur, and from the Cantonal School and University. In these preliminary meetings the delegates of the Educational Council participate as advisory, but not voting, members. Its business is the arrangement of the program and the preparation of the circular of invitation. The synod elects two members of the Educational Council; it receives the annual report which the Educational Council makes to the Administrative Council upon the status of the schools of Zürich, and the general report upon the activity of the teachers in the circuit chapters. It deliberates upon means for advancing the schools, formulates wishes and proposals to be made known to su perior boards, listens to addresses on professional questions, etc. The deliberations of the synod are public. The minutes are printed at the public expense for the members of the synod and of all school-boards. The teachers of both sexes living in a circuit form the school chapter of the circuit. Attendance upon this is obligatory. The chapters hold sessions four times a year; extraordinary meetings may be called. They elect their own officers, and also three members of the circuit school-board. Again, they are expected to furnish the Educational Council their opinions concerning the curriculum of the schools, the introduction of new school appliances or modifications of those already in use, as well as concerning the laws and regulations which may be proposed. If this has been done, each chapter desig nates a delegate for a conference, which formulates the general opinion of all the chapters. This conference, too, is attended by a dele. gate of the Educational Council with advisory powers but not entitled

to a vote. Furthermore, the chapters engage in discussions, in experimental lessons, and other exercises calculated to benefit its members. The officers of each chapter report annually to the Educational Council, and these reports are condensed into a short general report by the officers of the school-synod. Annually, before the end of March, the president of the synod and the presidents of the chapters hold a conference for the discussion of school affairs. The minutes of these conferences are sent to the Educational Council, which takes due notice thereof. Each chapter has a library, and receives annually a contribution of sixty francs from the state for its extension.

Concerning the salaries of teachers, it is to be observed that there is a periodical increase for successful experience; that in the same commune the salaries are the same for all primary teachers (of the same grade of experience); whether they teach higher or lower classes, all enjoy the same rights and duties, the same rank and esteem; that female teachers receive the same salaries as male teachers; and that if a commune chooses to pay more than the minimum salary to its teachers, the state shares the burden of the increase without stint. All teachers of the common schools are subjected every six years to a reëlection, or rather to a confirmatory election by the people of the commune. At the last election, out of 624 teachers only sixteen were not reelected by their communes; and of these, three were reëlected at a second election. Teachers who after thirty years of service are incapacitated by old age or disease, are pensioned with an annual income of at least one-half their last salary; but the Educational Council may increase this pension for certain specified reasons. Similarly the communes may increase this sum from their own means.

It may be well to add that the modifications in the laws from which the above is culled, and which have been in operation for fourteen years, have during this period been few and unessential, corroborating their tendency and original meaning. The teachers have grown in self respect, and proportionally in the respect of the people; and the latter appreciate more the great value of educatian, and are therefore always eager to furnish the means for their further improvement. In some communes, indeed, the salaries of teachers are more than double the minimum required by the state.

Undoubtedly the details of the Zürich plan are not, in all their features, practicable in our communities; but the spirit of this unique school organization is something to be devoutly wished for and persistently worked for by far-seeing friends of educational progress. The emancipation of teachers from a state of absolute and defenceless dependence on unprofessional men is the indispensable first step to reliable, permanent, living reform.

THE SYSTEM VERSUS THE TEACHER.

BY PROF. J. H. HOOSE.

Public functionaries of state, the pulpit, supervising school officers, boards of education, and teachers utter in consonance one chant, "As is the teacher so is the school"; which is but another way of saying that the teacher inherently constitutes the school. This old sentiment has been handed down by tradition from father to the son and daughter of his neighbor from those days whereof the memory of man runneth not. It is time to inquire how much of the sentiment that is embodied in the sentence cited belongs to the legendary ages, and how much of it is true in theory and practice. Legends are traditions which date their origin from a society that was chaotic in relation to the forms of social procedures; they belong to times when men were the pulpit; when men were representatives of theories; when men were the rostrum; when men were the center, life, and substance of forms and principles; they belong to those ages when societies were conceived as being constituted of an aggregation of people rather than as being composed of organized institutions. In those distant days the man was the institution; he was the school, so far as the term school can be applied to the condition of things as they existed at that time; indeed, nothing was possible then, except to conceive that the man was the school, for he constituted in his own person the system of schools, the theory of procedure, the courses of study, the authority to govern, and the power to dictate terms of admission. When the master was absent the entire school-system ceased to exist; his breath was its life; his departure was the annihilation of the school and the system; when he reopened a term, the system began de integro. Ancient governments proceeded. on the theory of aggregation of massses of people held together by the power of one ruler. Roman civilization introduced the theory of organization into governmental affairs. In the first instance the government died with the sovereign, a new one being instituted by the ascendency of a new monarch; in the second instance, the individual emperor constituted but one element in the administration of the affairs of government. The theories of organization constitute the bases of modern institutions, At the present time, government means a series of powers and forces and a collection of conventional

forms of procedure which are arranged into order in such manner as to afford a definite place for each member of the society. In other terms, government means an organization of the forces and X forms of society. A government so constituted is a system. The system determines with authority the status of its members; e. g., that the colored people who were once slaves in the United States and in Great Britain are not in bondage now, is a fact of government. Owing to changes in the system of government, the people of Japan enjoy greater privileges and attain a higher degree of enlightenment to-day than in times past; the comity of nations is more humane than formerly; countries are pillaged less and the helpless are unmolested in modern warfare; men now resort to mob-law less than in former years to deal out just punishment to offenders; and the freedom of the press has been enlarged.

Some systems of government lodge the controlling forces with an autocrat, or with the autocratic few; other systems distribute the powers among the many. Some sytems give influence and position. permanently to their members; others permit only limited periods of possession to positions and powers. If European courts have diplomatists who are better qualified by learning, accomplishments, and experience to be their representatives in foreign countries than have the United States, it arises from their systems of government. Americans boast of the institutions of their native land; they recount with pride the progress which is evident everywhere within the borders of the United States; they tell emigrants what liberties of possessing property, what civil and political powers of citizenship, what possibilities of promotion, can be obtained in this "land of the free and the home of the brave." This is due to the fact that the systems of government of the United States and of the several States afford all these privileges and possibilities to the people. Were there no differences in systems of government, the United States would be no more desirable as a country for emigrants that China or Ceylon; one country would be as good as another to live in, except in the matter of geographical situation.

The status of a profession in any country is determined by the system of government; the status of an individual of the profession is fixed by the system into which the profession is formed under the government Even if it is true that individuals have arisen who were stronger than systems and have overthrown them, other systems have been established in their stead; and it is still true generally that system molds the man, inasmuch as it gives express or implied f definition to his status therein.