were met in Sheffield on account of the larger population, 716,810, as against 426,686, and the mixture of people characteristic of a great commercial port. With respect to provision for secondary education there was also to be taken into account the lack of endowments. On this point Mr. Sadler observes:

Few, if any, of the great cities in England lack so signally as Liverpool the aid of large endowments for the support of secondary education. The city rose to greatness more than two generations after the impulse toward the founding, or refounding, of grammar schools, which played so great a part in the social history of England during the sixteenth and the early part of the seventeenth centuries had ebbed away. *

The lack of educational endowments is striking when compared with the comIrative wealth in this respect of some other Lancashire towns. While Manchester and Salford between them have educational endowments amounting to £11 18s. per 1,000 of their population, and while Bury, on a like calculation, has as much as £21 4s., Liverpool has only 10s. 7d.

In discussing the general character of secondary education, the principles by which it should be governed, the different types of secondary schools, their scope and age limits, the Liverpool report repeats substantially the views expressed in the report for Sheffield. But in the case of Liverpool new interest is imparted to these views by suggested modifications to meet the demands of a commercial city.

Without repeating the author's general theory of secondary education, it is the purpose to present here extracts from this very suggestive report pertaining (1) to existing conditions; (2) to the recommendations as to future developments.

Even before the passage of the education law of 1870, says Mr. Sadler

Liverpool made voluntary efforts, unsurpassed elsewhere in England, to grapple with the educational destitution of the masses of her people. Nor has the city failed, ever since that time, to hold a very honorable place among those communities which are bent upon progressive improvements in their primary schools and which value variety of method and of ideals in the work of elementary education.

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In particular is noted, in this connection, the advance made in the development of higher departments in a large number of the public elementary schools. The statistics given show that in the school year ending July 31, 1903, there were in the public elementary schools of Liverpool 716 scholars above standard VII; and of these 117 boys and 78 girls were in voluntary, and 258 boys and 263 girls in council schools. Forty-three of these boys and 81 of the girls were over 14 years of age." This number was, however, trifling as compared with the total enrollment in the public elementary schools of the city, viz, 132,749 (boys, 66,356; girls, 66,393). Mr. Sadler emphasizes this fact of the small proportion of pupils found in the advanced grade by comparison with New York. In this city in the year named (1903), according to the figures quoted

Twenty-four per 1,000 of the elementary school children passed, on the completion of their elementary course, to the secondary schools, the average age of the boys being 14 years 7 months, and that of the girls 14 years 9 months. In the same year, however, in Liverpool, so far as can be ascertained, only 3 per 1,000 passed on to secondary schools, nearly all the boys being in their fourteenth year, and more than half the girls in the fourteenth or fifteenth year.

The sources from which the secondary schools of Liverpool draw their pupils are private schools and the junior departments of the secondary schools themselves; thus it appears that "the secondary school population is separate throughout its ages from the elementary school population." In order to meet the present demands, two things are necessary: (1) the correlation of the public

elementary schools and secondary schools in such a manner as will facilitate the passage of pupils from the lower to the higher schools, and thus insure the benefits of secondary education to a much larger proportion of the population; (2) an increase in the number of secondary schools.

The following table shows the existing provision of schools and departments which offer courses of instruction above the elementary stage:

In respect to the amount of provision that should be made in the city for secondary education, Mr. Sadler notes several conditions that make it extremely difficult to arrive at a satisfactory estimate.

Conditions [he says] vary between town and town; in no two cases are the outlying districts served by the schools of particular towns strictly comparable; in no two cases are the numbers of children sent away to boarding schools likely to be exactly the same. Moreover, in England the statistics are not yet in existence which would justify any generalization.

Mr. Sadler refers in this connection to efforts made at various times to determine the proportion of youth for whom secondary education should be provided. He considers the estimate of the schools inquiry commission (1867), that 12.28 boys over 8 years of age per thousand of the population should be in secondary schools, to be too high. The commission of 1894 abandoned the endeavor to make an estimate. Later investigations showed that in the town of Birmingham 7 boys and 5 girls per thousand of the population were receiving an education that might properly be regarded as secondary. This estimate has been accepted as a reasonable standard for the large towns generally and is used by Mr. Sadler in his analyses of the conditions in Liverpool. In this city he says:

The number of boys receiving education in secondary schools or in the higher departments of public elementary schools amounts to no more than 4.1 per thousand, and the number of girls to 3.70 per 1,000 of the population of the city. Measured by the standard suggested above, the Liverpool total is nearly 3,000 short. Where there are now 5,621 pupils there should be 8,602.

The effect of this showing is heightened by the following comparisons:

In the year 1900 the proportion of boys in the higher schools of Prussia was 5.44 per 1,000 of the total population (187,620 in 34,472,500). It will be noticed that this calculation includes the rural as well as the urban districts. It takes into account those schools only which provide a course of instruction extending up to at least 16 years of age. Measured by this standard the Liverpool total boys in secondary schools is just over 1,300 short. There are 2,596; there should be 3,899.

In Cologne, a city more than half the size of Liverpool, the number of boys attending the higher and middle schools in 1900 was 8.7 per 1,000 of the population. If this proportion were reached in Liverpool the number of boys in the secondary schools would be 6,236.

On the other hand, the New York secondary school statistics may be set over against those derived from Prussia. In the year ending July 31, 1903, New York, with a population of 3,741,231, had no more than 6,860 boys and 10,205 girls, i. e., 1.83 and 2.72 per 1,000, respectively, of the total population, in its public high schools and high school departments. Of the numbers in the private secondary schools no statistics are available. In comparing New York with ED 1904 M-54

Liverpool it must be remembered that practically none of the American high school pupils are under 13 years of age. Of boys and girls over that age in all the Liverpool schools there are, respectively, 1,352 and 1,055, i. e., 1.89 and 1.47 per 1,000 of the population. There is, however, an admitted deficiency of secondary school places in New York, which, with its public secondary school population of 4.56 per 1,000, falls considerably below the present proportion for the whole of the United States. The wave of enthusiasm for high school education, which is one of the most striking features of American life at the present time, has not attained its full height in Yew York, though it is rising rapidly year by year. Taking the United States as a whole, 7.2 per 1,000 of the population are in public secondary schools. In some American cities the proportion per 1,000 of population is far higher. Indianapolis has 17 per 1,000; Denver, 18; Kansas City, 22; Newton (Mass.), 22; Topeka (Kans.), 24. These totals leave Liverpool far behind.

From the available report of former conditions it appears that Liverpool has suffered a decline in respect to attendance upon secondary schools. Whereas in 1864 the proportion of youth reported in schools of this grade was 3.87 per 1,000, it had fallen to 3.08 in 1891 and from that to 1.91 in 1903.

From his exhaustive survey of the whole situation Mr. Sadler declares that only one conclusion is possible, namely, that

The proportion of boys and girls who are receiving secondary education in Liverpool schools is smaller than we should expect to find in a great commercial city. Admirable in so many other respects, the educational equipment of Liverpool is, in regard to secondary education, considerably below modern standards of accessibility and popular support.

The detailed account of the existing secondary schools and higher institutions of Liverpool make up the greater part of the report considered. Here it is impossible to do more than name with brief characterizations the institutions, due for the most part to private initiative, which have become permanent factors in the intellectual life of the city.

Under the head of secondary education are classed three schools or “groups of schools" which Mr. Sadler counts" among the most noteworthy educational institutions in Liverpool." The Liverpool Institute was established in 1825, as a public trust, "for the promotion of useful knowledge and learning." Its first teaching department was opened in 1835. The institute comprises at present the high school, with an attendance of 195 boys and accommodation for 300, and a commercial school, with an attendance of 422 boys and accommodation for 500. The fees in the high school range from £2 28. a term to £4 4s., and in the commercial school from £1 5s. to £2 2s. The institute includes also a school for girls, established in 1844, and a flourishing art school. In 1903 the entire organization was transferred by the directors to the city, and its various departments began a new era as municipal secondary schools.

The Liverpool College, founded in 1844, comprises at present an upper school organized in a classical and a modern department, having on the registers 262 boys and accommodation for 300, fees £4 Gs. 8d. to £8 6s. 8d. a term; a middle school enrolling 248 boys with accommodation for 500, fees £2 2s. to £4 a term; and a commercial school with 243 boys in attendance and accommodation for 486, fees £1 5s. to £2 2s. a term. St. Francis Xavier College, established in 1842 by the Fathers of the Society of Jesus, comprises also a classical school with 158 pupils on the rolls and a commercial school with 150 students and accommodation for 180. The fees in the classical school range from £1 2s. a term to £3; in the commercial school the fees are £1 12s. a term.

Although the three institutions named maintain preparatory departments, their work both as regards methods and purposes is essentially secondary. They are also public schools in a sense in which the term is now very generally

applied in England-that is, they comply with the conditions as to standards, equipments, etc., which entitle schools to share in Government grants.

The movement of which these institutions were the outcome may be regarded as an early local manifestation of demands which have become general in England and which no previous efforts have adequately met, even in the most progressive communities.

The causes of this early movement in Liverpool are thus explained by Mr. Sadler:

In the first thirty-five years of the nineteenth century the population of Liverpool nearly trebled itself. The town had become the great port of industrial England. Its business increased by leaps and bounds. Many of its citizens realized that the vast growth of commerce under modern conditions carried with it the need of providing, on a larger scale than hitherto, what we now call secondary education for boys, as a leaven for good in a great trading center, as a means of furnishing competent recruits and cadets for business life, and (though this was less clearly understood then than now) as giving the best intellectual basis for further economic advance.

Starting thus with well-defined purposes the three institutions which arose one after the other in the period between 1825 and 1842 have given a characteristic quality and tone to secondary education in Liverpool."

The remaining schools of Liverpool which are classed as secondary are prlvate schools whose work is largely confined to the training of younger children. The two schools for girls belonging to the Girls' Public Day School Company are, however, essentially secondary in character and maintain excellent standards. Particular mention is also made in the report of the work of the great religious communities in the training of girls which forms a striking feature of the educational life of Liverpool."

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Provision for the training of teachers for the Liverpool elementary schools, which was included in the scope of Mr. Sadler's investigation, comprises five centers for the instruction of pupil teachers and three training colleges.

The "centers" are organized to continue the education of young people who are engaged part of each day in teaching and may be regarded as specialized secondary schools.

The training colleges like our own normal schools offer academic and professional courses of study. Two of these colleges are residential, and the third is a day college connected with the University of Liverpool. It is noticeable also that a large proportion of the students from the principal Pupil Teachers' Center enter the university.

The importance of increasing the relations between the university and the professional training of teachers was one reason for making the investigation all inclusive; additional reasons were found in the existence of specialized schools of art and technics, which depend for their full development upon students whose preliminary education has been prolonged, at least through the secondary schools. The specialized schools enumerated by Mr Sadler are the Municipal School of Art, formerly a part of the Liverpool Institute, the City of Liverpool School of Architecture and Applied Art, established in 1894 by the joint action of the technical instruction committee of the city council and the university authorities, the School of Commerce, controlled by a joint committee of the representatives of the Liverpool Chamber of Commerce, of the university, and of the education committee of the city council, the Training School of Cookery, and technical colleges of domestic science.

These specialized schools, as well as the Liverpool University, maintain evening classes which, with the evening classes conducted in the elementary school buildings, represent a very important part of the educational provision of the