CHAPTER XX.

DERIVED VERBS.

§ 307. FOUR classes of DERIVED VERBS, as opposed to Primitive, deserve notice.

I. Those ending in -en; as, soften, whiten, strengthen. The -en is a derivational affix, and not a representative of the Anglo-Saxon Infinitive form -an (as, lufian—to love); or the Old English -en (as, tellen, loven).

II. Transitive Verbs, derived from Intransitives by a change of the Vowel of the root.

All these Intransitives form their Preterites by a change of

Vowel; as, sink, sank; all the Transitives by the addition of d or t; as, fell, fell'd.

III. Verbs derived from Nouns by a change of Accent; as, to survey, from a survey. Walker attributes the change of Accent to the influence of the participial termination -ing.

IV. Verbs formed from Nouns by changing a final Surd Consonant into its corresponding Sonant; as, use, to use, pronounced uze; breath, to breathe, pronounced breadhe; half, to halve; grass, to graze.

CHAPTER XXL

REFLECTIVE VERBS.

§308. REFLECTIVE VERBS are those which are followed by Reflective Pronouns. In English such verbs are less strongly marked than in some other languages, as, for example, in German and French; yet they exhibit several peculiarities worthy of notice. Their true nature and character will be best seen by reducing to distinct classes all the verbs which might be called by this name.

I. Those formed from transitive verbs, remaining transitive, in which the agent truly and properly acts upon himself; as, to examine one's self, 1 Cor. 11: 28. to honor one's self, John 8: 54. to purify one's self, 1 John 3: 3. to kill one's self; to praise one's self; etc.

These verbs are reflective both in sense and in form. They have the emphasis or stress on the reflective pronoun. They are proper middle verbs, or verbs intermediate between the active and passive voices. If this had been the only class of reflective verbs, they would have needed but little notice in our grammars.

II. Those formed from transitive verbs, remaining transitive in form but not in sense, in which the agent does not truly and properly act upon himself; as, to boast one's self, Ps. 52: 1. 2 Cor. 11: 16. to delight one's self, Ps. 37: 4, 11.

to exercise one's self, Acts 24: 16. to forswear one's self, Mat. 5: 33. to fret one's self, Ps. 37: 1, 7, 8. to repent one's self, Ps. 135: 14. to possess one's self, etc.

So far as the sense is concerned, these verbs are neuter or intransitive. It is merely a mode of forming intransitive verbs out of transitive. The reflective pronoun is without emphasis. In many verbs of this class, especially in German and French, the indirect or remote object seems to act on the agent or subject; as, Germ. sich erinnern, to recollect; sich freuen, to rejoice; Fr. se repentir, to repent; se plaindre, to lament; Eng. to repent one's self; to fret one's self.

III. Verbs like those of the first and second classes, which are no longer used in their ordinary transitive meaning; as, to behave one's self, 1 Cor. 13: 5. 1 Tim. 3:15. (comp. Old Eng. behave, to restrain;) to bestir one's self, 2 Sam. 5: 24. (comp. Old Eng. bestir, to move;) to betake one's self, Is. 14: 32 marginal reading, (comp. Old Eng. betake, to deliver ;) to bethink one's self, 1 Kings 8: 47. 2 Chron. 6: 37. (comp. Anglo-Sax. bethencan, to consider ;) to wal low one's self, Jer. 6: 26. (comp. Old Eng. wallow, to roll;) to vaunt one's self, Judges 7: 2. 1 Cor. 13: 4. (comp. Fr. vanter, to praise.)

These constitute the reflective verbs in English, technically so called by grammarians, as they are now used only with the reflective pronoun. The reflective pronoun is of course

without emphasis.

Note. Many verbs of the second and third classes now omit, especially in colloquial language, the reflective pronoun; as, to behave, see Webster; to bethink, see Webster; to boast, see 2 Cor. 7: 14. Eph. 2: 9. to delight, see Mic. 7: 18. Mal. 2: 17. Rom. 7: 22. to fret, see Prov. 19: 3. to repent, see Num. 23: 19. Mat. 3: 2. to wallow, see Jer. 48: 26. Mark 9: 20. to vaunt, see Webster. So to conduct is sometimes improperly used for to conduct one's self. In this way verbs now intransitive sometimes have the appearance of being used reflectively. This, however, is not

the case.

IV. Many verbs are construed with a reflective pronoun of the indirect or remote object; as, to imagine to one's self.

These are a distinct class from all the rest, and require no special notice.

V. Many reflective verbs are construed with a second accusative of the factitive relation; as, to think one's self worthy, i. e. to think that one's self is worthy, Luke 7: 7. to feign one's self a just man, Luke 20: 20.

So to drink one's self drunk, 1 Kings 20: 16. to laugh one's self hoarse; to walk one's self tired. This is a common Teutonic idiom; comp. Germ. schlafen sich dumm, liter. to sleep one's self stupid.

VI. Sometimes the reflective pronoun has the form of the simple pronoun, as in French; as, to flee one away, Am. 7: 12 (comp. Fr. s'enfuir;) to get one, Num. 22: 34. Mat. 4: 10. (comp. Fr. s'en aller ;) to sit one down, Gen. 21: 16.~ (comp. Fr. s'asseoir.)

These are mere Gallicisms, and as such have been reprobated by grammarians.

CHAPTER XXII.

IMPERSONAL VERBS.

$309. THE different classes of verbs in English, which have sometimes been called IMPERSONAL, are as follows:

I. Where, as in describing the operations of nature and the state of the weather, no logical subject is conceived of or expressed, but the mere event is affirmed without any reference to the agency by which it is effected; as, it thunders; it rains; it is warm. The pronoun it is here merely the grammatical subject. These are proper impersonal verbs.

II. Where a logical subject must be conceived of; but either is not expressed, or is expressed grammatically in an oblique case; as, it strikes four; it repented the Lord because of their groanings; let it not be grievous in thy sight concerning the lad; it is over with them. These also are proper impersonal verbs.

III. Where the logical subject is not a substantive, but

U