ved at the age of twenty-one years, if he shall have resided five years in the United States, including at least three years of his minority, without having made a previous declaration of his intention to become a citizen. It is sufficient that the declaration be made at the time of his admission provided that he then declare on oath, and prove to the satisfaction of the court, that, for three years next preceding, it has been his intention to become a citizen, and that he shall, in all other respects, comply with the laws in regard to naturalization.

298. By the act of May 24, 1828, an alien who resided in the United States before the 18th June, 1812, and continues to reside here, need not previously make the declaration of his intention to become a citizen: provided he shall prove to the satisfaction of the court, that he was residing in the United States, before the 18th June, 1812, and that he has continued to reside here; and provided also that his residence shall be proved by the oath or affidavit of citizens of the United States. If the alien shall have arrived after the peace of 1815, his residence must have been continued for five years next preceding his admission, without having been, at any time during the five years, out of the territory of the United States.

299. Children of persons duly naturalized, being minors at that time, shall, if dwelling in the United States, be deemed citizens. And if any alien shall die after his declaration, and before his actual admission, his widow and children shall be deemed citizens.

300. A previous residence of five years is in all cases required to become citizens; the reason of which is obvi

ous.

It is not to be presumed that strangers can have, upon their arrival among us, that knowledge of our political institutions, and that attachment to them, which are necessary to qualify them for discharging the duties of citizens. Such is the nature of our government, that it

vided, by the act of 1824, for naturalizing alien minors? 268. What is provided by the act of 1828? 299. Under what circumstances are children of aliens deemed citizens? 300. Why is a previous residence of five years in all cases required?

can be safe only in the hands of those who understand and love the principles on which it is founded. And yet, important as this knowledge is, a large portion even of our native citizens, are little acquainted with the free institutions of their own country.

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CHAPTER XVI.

Bankruptcy.

301. ANOTHER of the powers granted to congress, is the power to establish uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States." The word bankrupt is derived from bancus, a bench, and ruptus, broken, in allusion to the benches formerly used by money lenders in Italy, which were broken or destroyed in case of failure. This word generally means an insolvent person, but, more strictly, an insolvent merchant. A distinction has been made by some between insolvent laws and bankrupt laws; the latter providing for discharging the debtor from his contracts; the former merely liberating his person.

302. This power is for several reasons entrusted to congress: (1.) To preserve uniformity and equality of rights and remedies among the citizens of all the states. Much inconvenience had arisen from the dissimilar and conflicting laws of different states, and from the refusal of some states to act on the subject. (2.) Because creditors in one state are not bound by the bankrupt laws of another so that a debtor, though released from his debts in one state, is still liable to be harassed by new suits whenever he removes without the state boundaries. (3.) This power in the general government is essential, also, to

:

301. What is the origin and meaning of the word bankrupt? 302. For what reasons was the power to pass bankrupt laws given

maintain commercial credit and intercourse with foreign

nations.

303. As the constitution prohibits the states from pas sing "laws impairing the obligation of contracts," the right of a state to pass insolvent or bankrupt laws, is questioned by many, who maintain that such laws impair the obligation of contracts; and that, as the power is given to congress to establish a uniform system of bankruptey, the power to make insolvent laws is thereby taken away from the states.

304. By the decisions which have been made by the supreme court of the United States, the following points appear to have been settled: (1.) That a state has no authority to pass an insolvent or bankrupt law to discharge a debtor from the obligation of a contract made before such law was passed. But if the law existed before a contract was made, it did not, in the sense of the consti tution, impair the obligation of that contract, because parties are presumed to have reference to the existing laws of the country when such contract is made. (2.) That until congress establish a uniform system of bankruptcy, a state may pass such insolvent laws as do not impair the obligation of contracts. (3.) That a discharge is valid only between the citizens of the state by which such law was passed; and that a debtor, if he should remove into another state, and there take the benefit of an insolvent law, does not discharge himself from debts contracted before his removal.

305. In view of the judicial decisions on this subject, Chancellor Kent observes: It remains yet to be settled, whether it be lawful for a state to pass an insolvent law, which shall be effectual to discharge the debtor from a debt contracted after the passing of the act, and within the state making the law. The general language of the Bourt would seem to reach even this case; but the facts

to congress? 303. Do the states possess the power of passing insolvent or bankrupt laws? On what ground is this power disputed? 304. What points, in relation to this question, have been settled by the decisions of the supreme court? 305. What opinion is expres

in the cases decided do not cover this ground, and are not authority to that extent."

306. Congress has heretofore, (April, 1800,) exercised its power to pass bankrupt laws; but this law was either repealed, or permitted to expire by its own limitation, in December, 1803. At present there is no uniform law on the subject. The general object of a bankrupt law is to relieve unfortunate traders, and, at the same time, to secure the application of their effects to the payment of their debts.

CHAPTER XVII.

Money-Weights and Measures.

307. CONGRESS has the sole power "to coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin." To produce uniformity of value in coin throughout the union, this power is exclusively given to congress, as its exercise by the states would cause much embarrassment, vexation and fraud, in consequence of the varying standards that would be established by the different states.

308. Mint signifies a place where money is coined by public authority. The word coin, (French,) means a stamp; or money stamped with a legal impression. Coining, until the last two or three centuries, was very imperfectly performed, by placing the blank piece of money between two dies, or steel punches, containing the design of the coin, and striking upon the upper one with 'a hammer. The imperfection of this hammer-money was caused by the uncertainty of placing the two dies

sed, and by whom, in view of these decisions? 306. Has congress ever exercised this power? Does such law now exist? What is the general object of a bankrupt law?

207. Why is the power to coin money, &c. given to congress? 308. What is the meaning of mint? Of coin? Describe the process

exactly over each other, and the improbability of a man's being able to strike a blow with such force as to make all parts of the impression equally perfect. The coining press, or mill, now used, was invented in France. The bars or ingots of gold or silver, after having been cast, are taken out of the moulds, and their surfaces cleaned. They are then flattened by rollers, and reduced to the proper thickness to suit the species of money to be coined. The plates are next cut out into round pieces by a circular steel punch of the size of the coin, which is driven downward by a powerful screw, and passes through a corresponding circular hole, carrying before it the piece of metal which is punched out. These pieces are brought to the standard weight, if necessary, by filing or rasping: the deficient pieces, together with the corners and pieces of the plates, are returned to the melter. The inscription or impression on the edge is made by rolling the coin, edgewise, between two plates of steel containing the engraved edging. The stamping is performed by pressing the piece with a powerful screw, between two steel dies, on which the figure to be impressed is engraved.

309. The officers and persons who conduct the business of the mint, are a director, a treasurer, an assayer, a chief coiner, an engraver, a melter and refiner. The director, with the approbation of the president of the United States, employs the necessary clerks and workmen, and has the chief management of the business of the mint. The treasurer receives the metals brought to be coined, and gives receipts for the same. The assayer receives from the treasurer a sufficient number of grains of every parcel, and assays them. This is a process to ascertain the quantity of gold or silver in the alloy. Alloy is a com position formed by the combination of two or more metals. To alloy means to mix a metal of less with one of more value. The baser metals are used to alloy gold and silver coins, to prevent their loss by wear.

The

of coining money? 309. What officers and persons are employed in the mint? What is the business of a director? Of a treasurer? Of an assayer? Of a chief coiner? Of an engraver? Of a melier

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