to adjourn, but not beyond the next sitting day. For legislative bodies these matters are generally regulated by constitutional provisions. If a quorum be present, a majority of that quorum may transact business. Accordingly, in a common council of twelve members when seven are present, four, a mere majority of that number, may pass votes which bind the whole council.

7. Order of business.-The order in which business shall be conducted is usually prescribed by a rule of the assembly and, when prescribed, should be followed. In meetings held pursuant to an invitation or under a formal call, for which special rules are seldom adopted, the order of business should follow the specifications of the call in so far as that is practicable.

8. Determinations-How arrived at.-Determinations are arrived at by the majority of votes. Unless there be some binding regulation to the contrary, a proposition is carried by a majority of the votes cast (a quorum being presumed to be present), for the right of the assembly to arrive at conclusions is not impaired by the mere silence and inaction of some of the voters in the room. The majority principle, however, may be modified by a special rule or binding law, under which a less number than a majority is admitted, or a greater number required, to define the will of the assembly with reference to some particular subject. Thus, it is generally provided in legislative assemblies that one-fourth or one-fifth of the members present may require the taking of a vote by yeas and nays and,

on the other hand, that no alteration in the rules shall be made except by a two-thirds vote.

9. Presiding officer-Conduct and rights.— Where but one presiding officer is originally appointed and for any reason a substitute for the time being becomes necessary, the proceedings leading up to his choice should be conducted by the recording officer. The presiding officer, however, when leaving the chair temporarily, may always call some member to take his place. This appointment is vacated by the next adjournment (unless the presiding officer sooner resumes the chair) and is always subject to the will of the house. The presiding officer should rise when addressing the assembly, or stating a motion, or putting the question. He may read a communication or recognize a member when seated. Where the presiding officer is a member of the assembly, his right to participate in its actions and debates admits of no question. That he should not do so, save upon rare and extraordinary occasions, is equally certain. Except in the case of an appeal from his ruling, he should never debate from the chair, and he is expected to vote only in certain contingencies, to be hereafter explained.

10. The clerk.-If but one clerk is chosen and he is at any time absent, his place should at once be filled. The clerk should be a good reader, with considerable knowledge of parliamentary law, and the ability to express himself concisely and accurately in writing.

11. The journal. The journal in legislative bodies should contain what is "done and past," but

not what is said or what is merely proposed or moved without coming to a vote. In some other bodies, as, for instance, religious or political assemblies, what was said may be as important as what was done. In such cases the minutes are properly much more extensive and may become practically a report of the entire proceedings.

12. Members-Their rights and duties. The rights and duties of members are easy to state but difficult to enforce. The rights of each member are based upon the doctrine of his equality with every other member. He has, therefore, the right to present his propositions and to debate them according to the rules. Each member has the right to insist that the assembly be in order and may rise to demand the same, but in so doing must not increase the disorder.

The duties of each member arise from his being a component part of an assembly which desires to act together, and in order to act together, must come to some agreement. The member must maintain order and refrain from conversation. He should not engage in other business than that before the meeting, or pass between the member who has the floor and the presiding officer, or interrupt a member who is in order except with his consent. He should not use discourteous expressions, or employ even proper parliamentary motions to create discord or to impede, unreasonably, the common action.

13. Disorderly conduct. In all instances of disorderly deportment, it is competent for every member, and is the special duty of the presiding officer,

to call attention to the offense. When this is done by the presiding officer he is said to "name" the offender. The member thus complained of is entitled to be heard in his own defense, but must then withdraw unless given permission to remain. The assembly thereupon determines the punishment, which may consist either of a reprimand, a prohibition from speaking or voting for a specified time, or expulsion. As an alternative to expulsion, a disorderly member is sometimes required to apologize. The disorderly conduct above referred to does not include such offenses as the use of wrong motions or a mistaken sequence of procedure, which will be considered hereafter.

CHAPTER II.

THE INTRODUCTION OF BUSINESS.

14. Preliminary statement.-The will of an assembly is evidenced by the agreement of the greater number of those voting, and the first step to that end is the submission of a proposition or motion which will form a basis for the further proceedings of the assembly, this proposition to be assented to, rejected, or modified, according as it expresses or not, or may be made to express, the sense of a majority of the members. The different proceedings which take place from the first submission of a motion through all the changes it may undergo until the final decision of the body upon it, constitute the subject matter of that division of parliamentary law which governs debates.

There are, of course, different forms in which different kinds of actions are put. When an assembly commands, it is by an order. If it desires to express its opinion or purpose or make a statement of facts, a resolution is the usual method. If a legislative body, it enacts public laws by means of a bill which, when approved by all those entitled to deal with it, becomes an act. Bills, not public in their nature, are sometimes called resolutions.

15. Business, how begun. The beginning of business in either of the forms above referred to is its introduction by a member from the floor. Only