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we read so much, I beg for the information of our churchyard sculptors to mention, that "a learned student of recondite lore" has assured me that the cherubim were not human figures with wings, but circles representing the signs of the zodiac.

The Romans were tardy in their cultivation of the art of sculpture, which was perhaps owing also to the influence of that ancient law of Numa, noticed by St Augustine* in the controversy respecting the introduction of images, particularly of God the Father into the churches. In fact, the ancient Romans are not considered as having made any great degree of proficiency in the fine arts, notwithstanding the magnitude of their architectural remains; and even in architecture they were far inferior to the Greeks, who distinctively settled the embellishments of the several orders, by which their buildings obtained that appropriateness of character that at once declared the use for which they were erected, and rendered them models to all succeeding ages. The Romans, in the best epoch of their taste, followed the Greeks, but deviating from their chaste models, adopted that false principle which supposes a beauty in ornament independent of propriety of application or of fitness of place. The fragments of this corruption of taste, our own architects for a long period were in the practice of imitating, but as I shall have an opportunity on some other occasion of noticing more particularly the progress and state of the arts in this country, I refrain for the present from adverting to this branch of the subject. It may, however, be so far requisite in the meantime, to explain, that the effect of this false principle of taste in architecture, is equivalent to that uninteresting beauty which we sometimes meet with in historical pictures ;-where, though every figure is in correct proportion, well drawn, and with drapery elegantly folded, yet not being employed appropriately to the subject, the general composition is but a mere academical compilation, unadorned with the impress of that mental conception which constitutes the highest quality of refined art.

But if the ancient Romans are not entitled to rank high as artists, the painters and sculptors of modern Rome

have acquired a pre-eminence far above those of any other nation. The Moses of Michael Angelo, for example, in appropriateness of character, is one of the most perfect creations that ever rose from beneath the chisel; and it has been said, that in this respect it may be classed with the Minerva and the Jupiter of Phidias. It has indeed fixed, as it were, an unalterable standard, by which every subsequent attempt to embody the form of the Jewish Lawgiver will not only be estimated, but must also, in some degree, resemble in air, features, and expres sion. Michael Angelo, however, was not always uniformly successful. His statue of the Saviour, the companion of the Moses, is a complete failure. The benevolent character of Jesus was a subject not suited to his vehement genius; and the statue is scarcely one degree above a common academical figure-framed according to rule, and faultless without merit. In his sublime work on the day of judgment, the same inconsistency may be observed. The single figures are without any appropriate character, without any expression applicable to their tremendous situation; but the groups are composed with admirable skill. Still, however, even as single figures, they have great merit; and although they are but the ingenious adaptation of legs, arms, and heads, to the celebrated Torso, which bears his name, and which served as the model to most of his figures, they are nevertheless the productions of a masterly hand.

The first modern artist who understood the principle of giving to his figures the peculiar expression belonging to their situation and character, was Leonardo da Vinci, and he carried it to the highest point of excellence in his picture of the Last Supper. The appropriate character which he has given to the apostles in that great composition, the significance of expression in their several faces, all show that the point of time by the artist, is when our Saviour said, "There is one amongst you who shall betray me." But he failed in the head of the Saviour. He had exhausted his powers of characteristic discrimination in the heads of the apostles; and in his attempt to blend meekness and dignity in the figure of Christ, he produced only insipience. He had

*St Augustine, Vol. V. cap. xxxi. page 38.

the prudence, however, to leave the face unfinished, that the imagination of the beholder might not be disappointed by an unworthy image, but form in his own mind one more accordant to his feelings and the subject. Pleasing as the works of Leonardo da Vinci are in general, had he not produced the Last Supper, and the cartoon of the Combatants for the Standard, he would scarcely have emerged above the level of mediocrity, for his pictures, generally speaking, are more remarkable for laborious finishing than for the impress of intellectual power.

The St Mark of Fra. Bartholomeo de St Marco, for appropriate and characteristic expression, is one of the most successful efforts of modern talent; but none of the other works of this artist, except one, possess the same degree of excellence. As that one is but little known to our travel ling connoisseurs, it may be interesting to give some account of it; and I am enabled to do so, from the portfolio of one of the most eminent modern artists, "The picture is on pannel, and its dimensions somewhere about twenty feet in height, by fourteen in width. The subject is the Assumption of the Virgin. The composition is divided into three groups. The apostles and the sepulchre form the centre group, from the midst of which the virgin descends. Her body-drapery is of a deep ruby colour, the only decided red in the picture, and her mantle blue, but in depth of tone approaching to black, and extended by angels to nearly each side of the picture. This mantle is relieved by a light, resembling the break of day seen over the summit of a dark mountain, which gives an awful grandeur to one effect of the first view of the picture, on en tering the chapel in which it is placed over the altar. That awful light makes a fine harmonious contrast to the golden effulgence above, in the midst of which the Saviour is seen with expanded arms, coming from a brighter region of glory to receive and welcome his mother. When I saw this sublime composition, I was affected with an emotion of religious enthusiasm, as when I heard, for the first time, the harmonious blendings of vocal sounds in the solemn notes of Non nobis Domine. I never felt more forcibly the dignity of music and the dignity of VOL. VI.

painting, than from these two wonderful efforts of art. When we consider the combination of excellencies requisite to produce the sublime in painting, the union of propriety with dignity of character-the graceful grouping-the majestic folding of the drapery, and the deep and sombrous tones of the clear obscure-with appropriate colours all blending into one magnificent whole there is no picture more justly entitled to this highest epithet of excellence, than the Assumption of the Virgin, by Fra. Bartholomeo de St Marco, at Lucca."

Blest

When the works of Michael Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Bartholomeo de St Marco, were attracting the admiration of all the judges of refined art, Raphael, having attained his adult age, came to Florence. The sensibility of his mind was like the softened wax, which makes more visible and distinct the form of the engraving with which it is impressed. with this happy natural endowment, he became at once heir, as it were, to the treasures and experience of all his predecessors; and availing himself of the examples afforded by the discoveries of the Grecian relics, he combined, by the tuition of his own genius, and a well practised hand, a power to unfold his conceptions. In the exercise of this power, he has attained unrivalled excellence. But the peculiar merits and defects of the productions of this extraordinary young man are of too high and various a kind to be discussed in the present paper. I have, indeed, already extended the limits which I prescribed to myself, nor should I have said so much but for the purpose of intimating that there is a great deal of curi ous moral matter connected with the history of the arts, altogether independent of the merits of particular works, or the genius of particular artists. The fine arts, as they have appeared in different ages, constitute the visible history of the human mind, and those who regard painting and sculpture merely as contributing to the embellishment of our social pleasures, look only at the surface of the subject. It is necessary, however, to take care that we do not refine overmuch, and yield to the metaphysical suggestions of the imagination, a credence and authority which history refuses to confirm.

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LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Fossil Whales.-In a former Number we gave an account of a fossil whale discovered at Airthrie, and now deposited in the Edinburgh College Museum. Similar remains, we understand, have been discovered in the Carse of Falkirk, and in the county of Ayr. A good many years ago the remains of two whales were discovered in the alluvial soil of the river Po in Italy, and at Castel Arquato. Both of these specimens, although very imperfect, and much inferior in magnitude to the whale of Airthrie, were considered of such value that they were sent as magnificent donations by Beauharnois, formerly Viceroy of Italy, to the Museum of Milan.

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Dr Crichton's Mineralogical Cabinet.We have often heard of the Mineralogical Cabinet of Dr Crichton, physician to the Emperor of Russia, and regretted that no catalogue of it had been published. few weeks ago we received from Petersburgh, an excellent catalogue lately published of this admirable collection, which appears to exceed in richness, beauty, and scientific interest, all the numerous collections hitherto made in the north of Europe. On a future occasion we shall lay before our readers some extracts from this catalogue.

Geology of the Cape of Good Hope.-It would appear from a paper of Professor Jameson, in the last number of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, that the peninsula of the Cape of Good Hope, is an enormous crystallized mass of quartz, felspar, and mica, in the form of granite, gneiss, clay slate, and sand stone.

Shetland Cod Bank.-The notice of the Cod Bank lately discovered in Shetland, published in a former Number of our Magazine, has, we understand, attracted the particular attention of those interested in the Fisheries. It is likely to prove a source of great wealth, not only to the Shetland islands, but to the country in general. We are informed that the fishing of last season has been very productive.

Marble in Lord Reay's Country in Sutherland.-Professor Jameson, it is said, has lately examined the mineralogical structure of the county of Sutherland, and particularly the strata of marble in Lord Reay's country. He is of opinion, that the dark variegated marble, which occurs in great beds on the north coast, ought to be quarried and brought to the market, as its texture is excellent and its colours good.

Colouring of Agate.-Dr Macculloch of Woolwich, in an interesting communication to the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, informs us that the beautiful black and white zoned agates, sold by lapidaries, are prepared by first boiling the specimens in oil, and afterwards in sulphuric acid. The oil is absorbed by certain laminæ, and these become black when the stone is exposed to the action of the sulphuric acid.

Mineralogical Map of Scotland.-Profes sor Jameson has been employed for many years in investigating the mineralogical structure of his native country, and has now, we understand, collected so extensive a series of facts and observations, that he will soon present to the public a Map of the Minera logy of Scotland. Dr M'Culloch, who has been employed in mineral researches in Scotland, at the expense of government, has it also in agitation to publish a map illustrative of the geology of this country.

English Gold. Some fine specimens of native English gold have been presented to Hawkins, Bart. through the hands of Earl the Royal Institution, by Sir Christopher Spencer. They were found lately, while streaming for tin, in the parish of Ladock, Cornwall; some of the pieces weigh each 60 grains. Native English gold has also been found lately in Devonshire, by Mr Flexman of South Molton. It occurs in the refuse of the Prince Regent mine, in the pacovered in 1810, and worked for copper, rish of North Molton; the mine was disbut was discontinued in May 1818. The refuse is a ferruginous fragmented quartz rock, and contains the gold in imbedded grains and plates. Gold has been reported to be found in some other mines in that neighbourhood.

Age of the Human Species.-In the last number of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, we find the following very interesting statement in regard to the age of the human species.

Discovery of Human Skulls in the same formation as that which contains remains of Elephants, Rhinoceri, &c.— Some years ago Admiral Cochrane presented to the British Museum a human skeleton, incased in a very compact alluvial aggregation of coral and other similar matters. This curious specimen was at first considered as a true secondary limestone, and there

fore as affording evidence that the human species had been called into existence during the formation of the secondary strata. Geologists pointed out the inaccuracy of this opinion, and proved that the enclosing mass was not a portion of the older strata of the crust of the earth, but merely a portion of one of those calcareous formations daily taking place on the shores of the West India Islands. It is well known to geologists, that several extensive tracts in Germany are covered with a deep deposite of calcareous tuffa, which contains fossil remains of the mastodonton, megatherium, Irish elk, (Alci gigantea, Blum.), and elephant (Elephas primigeni), and other colossal animals, which are now considered as extinct. In this very ancient alluvial formation, human skulls have been discovered; and if the statements given in regard to this interesting discovery, at Meissen in Saxony, be correct, we have obtained a proof of the co-existence of the human race, with the gigantic megatheria, elks, and elephants.

Geology of Shetland Islands.-Dr Hibbert of Manchester, at present resident in Edinburgh, has published the first part of his geological description of the Shetland Islands, in the second number of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. It would appear from the details there given, that Dr Hibbert considers nearly the whole of Shetland as of primitive formation; and the result of one grand and simultaneous process of crystallization. This view of primitive rocks, although it may be objected to by the mere collectors of specimens, and closet speculators, is not the less likely to be a plausible interpretation of nature.-Professor Jameson, in the first number of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, proposes the same opinion, and has there given such details as incline us to view this speculation in a favourable light; and as one likely to improve geological science.

Felspar, and Pitchstone, varieties of the same species. In the islands of Arran, Mull, Egg, and Skye, pitchstone occurs in beds, veins, and embedded masses, in rocks of various descriptions. It appears to run into felspar, thus shewing that it is nearly allied to that substance, and indeed, that the two substances are probably varieties of the same species. In the mineral system, pitchstone ought to be placed near compact felspar, and under the name Resinous Felspar.

Subterraneous Sounds in Granite Rocks. M. Humboldt was informed by most credible witnesses, that subterraneous sounds, like those of an organ, are heard towards sunrise, by those who sleep upon the granite rocks on the banks of the Oroonoko. He supposes them to arise from the difference of temperature between the external air and the air in the narrow and deep crevices of the shelves of rocks. During the day, these crevices are heated to 48° or 50°. The temperature of their surface was often 39°, when

that of the air was only 28°. Now, as this difference of temperature will be a maximum about sunrise, the current of air issuing from the crevices will produce sounds which may be modified by its impulse against the elastic films of mica that may project into the crevices. Messrs Jomard, Jollois and Devilliers heard, at sunrise, in a monument of granite, placed at the centre of the spot on which the Palace of Karnak stands, a noise resembling that of a string breaking. Humboldt's Personal Narrative, vol. iv.

Meteoric Phenomenon called the Lantern of Maracaybo.-This luminous phenomenon is seen every night on a mountainous and uninhabited spot on the borders of the river Catatumbo, near its junction with the Sulia. Being nearly in the meridian of the opening of the Lake of Maracaybo, navigators are guided by it as by a lighthouse. This light is distinguished at a greater distance than 40 leagues. Some have ascribed it to the effects of a thunder-storm, or of electrical explosions, which might take place daily in a pass in the mountains; while others pretend that it is an air volcano. M. Palacios observed it for two years at Merida. Hy. drogen gas is disengaged from the ground in the same district: this gas is constantly accumulated in the upper part of the cavern Del Serrito de Monai, where it is generally set on fire to surprise travellers.-See Humboldt's Personal Narrative, vol, iv. p. 254.

Atmospherical or Meteoric Dust.-Professor Rafinesque of New York, in a paper on atmospheric dust, maintains, that an imperceptible dust falls at all times from the atmosphere, and that he has seen it on Inount Etna, on the Alps, on the Alleghany and Castskill mountains in America, and also on the Ocean. This is the same dust which accumulates in our apartments, and renders itself peculiarly visible in the beams of the sun. He has found it to accumulate at the rate of from one-fourth of an inch to one inch in a year, but in such a fleecy state, that it could be compressed to onethird of its height. Hence he takes the average of the yearly deposite at about onesixth of an inch.-American Journal of Science, No. iv. p. 397.

Royal Geological Society in Cornwall.This flourishing society. owes much to its former secretary, Dr Parys, and to the active and enlightened exertions of Davies Gilbert, Esq. M.P. Lord de Dunstanville, and the present accomplished and learned secretary, Dr Forbes. At the anniversary meeting held at Penzance, end of September, many valuable papers were read, of which the following list has been published.

1. On the Importance of Mineralogical and Geological Knowledge to the practical Miner; by Dr Forbes, the secretary.

2. On the Granite Veins of Cornwall; by Mr Joseph Carne.

3. Dr Forbes on the Geology of St Michael's Mount.

4. On Elvan Courses, by Davies Gilbert,

Esq. M.P. Vice-President of the Royal Society, President.

5. On the Temperature of Mines, by Mr R. W. Fox.

6. On the Temperature of Mines, by Dr Forbes.

7. On the Geology of the West of Corn wall, Part II. by Dr Forbes.

8. Appendix to the above, by Professor Jameson.

Besides the above, there were several papers presented which there was not time to read; among which were a paper by the Rev. Mr Greathead; a short account of the coal field of Pontypool by Mr Llewellyn; a valuable paper by Mr R. W. Fox, on the Transmission of Heat through different sur faces; Mr König on the Cornish Minerals in the British Museum.

Preservation of Water at Sea.-M. Pernet, after an examination of the means which are, or may be, adopted for the preservation of fresh water at sea, gives the preference to the following: 14 parts of oxide of manganese in powder is mixed with 250 parts of water, and agitated every fifteen days. In this way water has been preserv→ ed unchanged for seven years.

The editor of the Annales de Chimie observes, that oxide of manganese has the power, not only of preserving water, but of rendering that sweet which has become pu trid; but he also points out the important circumstance, that the oxide is slightly soluble in water, and therefore recommends the use of iron tanks for the water, as in Eng land.

Simultaneous existence of Salt and Fresh Water Mollusca, in the Gulf of Livonia. The difficulty experienced in Geology, of explaining the simultaneous existence in certain strata of salt and fresh water shells, and also the importance, perhaps exaggerated, which many persons have attached to this discovery, induced M. Beudant, some years since, to undertake experiments, with the view of ascertaining if it were possible to habituate marine shell mollusca to live in fresh water, and, vice versa, fresh water shell mollusca to live in salt water. It appeared from the results obtained, that these changes could really take place, but the mixture of these two sorts of animals in the same water had not been observed in nature. M. de Freminville, lieutenant of a vessel, a zealous cultivator of the sciences of Zoology and Geology, has announced, in a letter to M. Brongniart, dated February 11, 1819, this curious discovery." The lesser degree of saltness of the waters of the Baltic Sea is more sensible in the Gulf of Livonia than any where else. It is such that the fresh water mollusca live there very well; and I have found on the shores of Unios, Cyclades, and Anodontes, living intermingled with cardiums, tellenes, and Venus's, shell fish which generally live in the most salt waters."-Journal de Physique, July 17,

1812.

Suicides in Paris.The number of suis cides committed and attempted in Paris and its environs in the four months of January, February, March, and April, amounted to 124. Of these persons 33 were women ; 64 of them were single, and 60 had been married. The greater number destroyed life by the use of fire arms, the vapour of charcoal, or by drowning; 46 resorted to the last method. This period of the first four months of this year, compared with the same period of the last year, offers an excess of 41 suicides.

By the end of June the number amount. ed to 199, of which 137 were committed by men, and 62 by women; 102 of these were married, and 97 were unmarried. These have been arranged in a sort of scale according to the causes, thus for love, 17; illness, distaste of life, insanity, domestic trouble, 65; bad conduct, gaming, lottery, 28; misery, poverty, deranged affairs, 47; fear of re proaches and punishment, 6: unknown motives, 36; in the whole 199, of which 53 were unsuccessful attempts, and 146 were completed.

Submarine Volcano near Shetland. The late Rev. George Low, author of the Fauna Orcadensis, in a tour through the Shetland Islands during the summer of 1774 (the MS. of which is in the possession of Dr Hibbert), collected some curious information from the island of Fetlar, which appears to have fixed the site of a submarine volcano at no great distance from the British Isles. The late Andrew Bruce, Esq. of Urie, in a statistical account of the Island, communi cated to Mr Low, says, "In 1768, we had the visible signs of a submarine shock, which threw ashore vast quantities of shell-fish of different kinds, and of all sizes, with conger eels, and other sorts of fish, but all dead at the same time, the sea, for several miles round, was of a dark muddy colour for several days after."

Calculation of the Period of a Second Deluge.-According to the calculations of the learned astronomer of Bremen, M. Olbers, after a lapse of 83,000 years, a comet will approach to the earth in the same proximity as the moon; after 4,000,000 years it will approach to the distance of 7,700 geographical miles, and then, if its attraction equals that of the earth, the waters of the ocean will be elevated 13,000 feet, and a deluge will necessarily ensue! after a lapse of 220,000,000 years, it will clash with the earth.

Strength of Etna Wines.-The following wines were furnished to me by Mr Ridgway. The specific gravity of the alcohol, of which the proportions per cent. are given beneath, is 825 at 60° F.

Etna red contained 18.9 per cent.
Etna white 18.16 ditto.
Etna Sercial 19 ditto.
Ætna white Falernian 18.99 ditto.
Ætna red Falernian 20 ditto.

M. F.

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