ness. The manifold services of government will receive attention in another place (p. 235). Here it is enough to say that government lays its hands upon us in our infancy and is a guiding and controlling force all our lives. If it is wise and just and efficient it is an instrument of happiness; if it is foolish or tyrannical or incapable, it is an agency of misery. Our interest, therefore, in securing and maintaining a good government is direct and permanent.

The Evolution of the State. The governments of the earth as we see them to-day are the product of thousands of years of growth, revolution, and change. History does not give a clear account of the beginnings of government, but it takes us back to a time when society was extremely rude, and when ?government was a very simple affair. A study of early society reveals the following development of government:

I. The Family. At the dawn of history society was organized upon the basis of kinship and religion, and in this organization the family was the center of much governmental authority. At the head of the family, consisting of parents, children, grandchildren, servants, dependents, and adoptive members, stood the house-father (patriarch) as priest and ruler. The power of the father, or pater familias, over the lives and possessions of the members of the household was absolute. He could pronounce the death sentence upon a child, or could sell it into slavery. No member might marry without the consent of the father, nor could any member hold property in his own name. As far as the members of the family were concerned the father was the source of all authority.

II. The Tribe. We are not certain, however, that the government of the family was ever a sovereign government. A sovereign government exercises within itself all power and supreme power and is independent of and uncontrollable by any other government. There is no proof that the family was ever a government of this kind. No matter how far back we go, we always find evidence that the family was in

some way subordinated to a larger government which we may conveniently call the tribe, and which consisted of a union of families which had a common earthly ancestor, and which worshiped the same God. At the head of the tribe, as its chief and high priest, stood that kinsman who by birth was nearest to the common ancestor. The chief was assisted in matters of government by the heads of the families which composed the tribe.

III. The State. The last step in the evolution of government was taken when tribes coalesced and formed the? nation or state. The earliest state was still organized on ́ the basis of kinship, as the word nation (natus) indicates. There was still a remote ancestor who was the common forefather of every person in the nation, and a direct living descendant of this ancestor was the king of the nation by divine right. As society developed, however, and as social interests multiplied and social necessities grew more pressing, the claims of birth gave way to the claims of meritorious leadership, and the kingship was bestowed upon the one who was thought to be the most worthy and the most capable. With the formation of the state the king's council comes into prominence. This body consisted of the leading men of the state, chieftains of the tribes and the heads of distinguished families. The council advised the king, and its advice had the moral effect of a command. There appeared in the early state still another factor of government. This was the popular assembly. The freemen of the state made bold to attend the sessions of the king and council and make known the popular will in respect to public affairs. The king and council were not bound to act in accordance with the wishes of the popular assembly, yet a prudent king could not completely ignore the expressed will of the people.

In the organization of the early state described above, an organization which was completed almost at the dawn of history, we find an enduring pattern for all the governments which were to follow. In the highly organized state of today the presidency is a development of the ancient kingship,

the legislature is a development of the ancient council, and the voting population is an enlargement of the ancient popular assembly.

With the appearance of the early state, public affairs, that is to say, politics, became a distinct subject of human interest. The citizen came into view. A man was now not only a member of a religious cult, he was a member of a commonwealth, a partner in a political enterprise. Men wanted effective armies, and good laws, and a just enforcement of these laws; and they regarded the state as an agency by which these things might be secured. As members of this organization they were citizens vested with the rights and duties of citizenship, owing allegiance to the state and receiving protection from it.

Types of Government. In tracing the evolution of government in the above section we have kept in mind the ancient history of the region around the Mediterranean Sea for the reason that the ancient government of this region can be studied to the best advantage. An early state of the Mediterranean region was always small; it was rarely as large as one of our smaller counties. Near its center was a compact settlement called the city (polis), around which was a wall, and within which was the residence of the king. At convenient distances from the city lived villagers, who would flee to the city for refuge in time of danger. The central fortified place, together with the outlying villages, was called the city-state.

The city-state, as it was constituted in the time of Homer (1000 B.C.), was invariably a monarchy, but, as we have seen, changes in the structure of society and in its interests brought changes in the organization of the state. In many of the city-states the leading men, the wealthy and highborn, deposed the king and took government into their own hands and set up aristocracies. Properly speaking, an aristocracy is a government conducted by a few of the best people of the state. It often happened in the ancient world

that a clique of political adventurers who could claim neither merit nor high birth would seize upon the power of the state by intrigue and hold it by force. A government of this kind was called an oligarchy. Again, in many cases all the citizens, that is, all who enjoyed the rights and privileges of the city, demanded and secured a direct participation in government. A government of this kind was called a democracy. An ancient democracy was really only an enlarged aristocracy, for in the ancient state there were large numbers of slaves with no rights of any kind, and large numbers of freemen with no political rights, and the number of people who could possibly have a voice in government was always but a small proportion of the adult male population.

Thus we see that after communities passed from a tribal to a national form of government, from a religious to a political organization, government began to be an affair of man's choice, a creation of his will, rather than a thing of divine ordination. As a result of this freedom many different kinds of states were evolved. Aristotle (333 B.C.) was able to classify the two hundred and fifty states around the Mediterranean under three heads:

(1) The monarchy, the government of one, the strong. (2) The aristocracy, the government of the few, the wise. (3) The democracy, the government of the many, the good. The forty-odd sovereign governments of to-day may be most conveniently classified as follows:

1. Absolute Monarchies, in which the will of one person is unfettered and supreme.

2. Limited Monarchies, in which the monarch shares political power with a legislative body.

3. Republics, in which all political power flows directly or indirectly from the citizens who are entitled to vote.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. What is society?

2. What is government?

3. Describe the ancient family,

4. Describe the tribal organization.

5. What were the three political elements of the early state?

6. Compare the organization of the early state with the state of to-day.

7. Describe the city-state of antiquity.

8. What is a monarchy? an aristocracy? an oligarchy a democracy? 9. What was Aristotle's classification of governments?

10. How may the governments of to-day be classified?

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

1. Can society exist without government?

2. Religion, commerce, education, war-which of these tends most strongly to knit widely separated societies together? What forces are now operating to bring the United States into social relations with the other countries of the world?

3. What is the difference between evolution and revolution in government? Was the Declaration of Independence an act of evolution or revolution?

4. Compare the City of Refuge mentioned in the Old Testament with the city-state described in the text. (See Numbers xxxv, 1–5).

5. Which of the three classes of government mentioned by Aristotle prevails in the family of to-day in the school? in the management of the affairs of a college? of a church? of an athletic association? of a railroad?

6. Classify the sovereign governments of the earth as absolute monarchies, limited monarchies and republics. In which class do we find the greatest number of people? In which class is the highest grade of civilization?

7. Among the services which government performs for society are the following: (1) It keeps the streets and roads in repair; (2) it supports the schools; (3) it administers justice between man and man; (4) it carries the mails; (5) it protects life and property; (6) it preserves the liberty of citizens; (7) it regulates the possession and transfer and descent of property; (8) it defends the nation against attack; (9) it protects the public health; (10) it helps the poor and unfortunate. Arrange these services in the order of their importance, placing the most important service first. Be prepared to give reasons for your arrangement.

8. Describe a typical despotism; for example, Persia. (Consult a good Encyclopedia.)

9. Which is worse, anarchy or despotism?

10. Describe the effect which a hermit's life produces upon mental and moral character.