to increase the ratio of representation. This was done to prevent the House from becoming unwieldy by reason of numbers. If the original ratio had been retained the House of Representatives would now consist of quite twenty-five hundred members-a body entirely too large for deliberate action. The present ratio of representation (193,167) gives a House of 386 members. (211, 877)

The Election of Representatives. Any one who is quali'fied to vote for members of the more numerous branch of the State legislature is qualified to vote for a representative in Congress (4). The members of the House are elected by a direct vote of the people. For more than half a century the States were allowed to elect their representatives in their own way, but in 1842 Congress, exercising its power (24), ordered that when a State was entitled to more than one representative, the representatives should be elected by districts composed of contiguous territory; that the number of these congressional districts should be equal to the number of representatives apportioned to the State; that no district should be entitled to more than one representative. The division of a State into congressional districts is left with its legislature. The districts may conform to such boundaries as the legislature may decide upon, but they must contain as nearly as possible the same population. Sometimes the dominant party in the legislature "gerrymanders" the districts, that is, marks them out in a way that is grossly unfair to the minority party. A representative need not reside in the district which he represents, but public opinion is strongly in favor of residence within the district. It sometimes happens that a State, after receiving an increase in the number of its representatives, fails to be re-districted before the next congressional election. In such cases the additional members (or member) are elected by the voters of the whole State as a general ticket, and are called congressmen-at-large.'

The Election of Senators. Members of the Senate are elected by the legislatures of the several States (15). For more than three fourths of a century the legislature of each State chose United States senators in its own way; but, since disagreements were constantly arising as to the manner in which the election should be held, Congress, in 1866, in accordance with its rights (24), ordered that the two houses of the legislature should meet in joint assembly and elect by joint ballot; that if on the first ballot no person should receive a majority of all the votes in each house, the balloting should continue from day to day (at least one vote being taken each day), until a senator should be elected by a majority of all the votes, a majority of each house being present.

This rule, although it may be as good as any that can be devised, does not always work well. The position of United States senator is highly prized as an honor, and the struggle for it is becoming so keen as seriously to interfere with the regular business of the legislature. Sometimes, after a contest that has consumed much of the time and attention of an entire session, the legislature is compelled to adjourn without electing a senator. Thus at times the rule not only does not work well, but does not work at all. One remedy proposed is to have the senators elected by the people. To do this with governmental authority would require an amendment to the Constitution. The House of Representatives by more than a two-thirds vote has several times prepared an amendment providing for the popular election of the senators, but the Senate has not looked with favor upon the proposed change.

Congress the Focus of American Political Life. Congress, by virtue of its organization, is the political nerve-center of the Union. The members of the House come fresh and direct from the people of the whole country; the voice of the House is, therefore, the voice of the nation. The senators are the federal ties which unite the State govern

mendment.

THE ORGANIZATION OF CONGRESS

121

ment with the national government. In the halls of Congress have been done the things which have made the United States the country it is. As in the past Madison, Clay, Webster, Calhoun, John Quincy Adams, Sumner, Thurman, Blaine, workers in the House and Senate, shaped the policies and directed the course of the American nation, so in the present the fortunes of the Union are in the hands of the men we send to Congress. While we keep statesmen there we are safe, but if we should allow Congress to become a body of political gamesters we would doubtless advance rapidly to national ruin.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. What problems of representation arose in the Convention of 1787? 2. Explain the difference between the national principle of representation and the federal principle.

3. What was the Connecticut compromise?

4. In what respect is Congress a national body? In what respect is it a federal body?

5. Why is it likely that the equality of the States in the Senate will not be disturbed?

6. In what manner are representatives apportioned to the several States?

7. Give an account of the election of representatives.

8. Give an account of the election of United States senators.

9. Why is Congress the center of national politics?

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

1. Show from the history of the times that the people in 1787 needed a government which would accomplish just such objects as are mentioned in the preamble (1).

2. What words in the preamble reveal the democratic feature of our Constitution? What words its federal feature?

3. In referring to the government which has its seat at Washington, why do we sometimes speak of it as being federal and sometimes as being national?

Is there any

4. Give the history of the word "gerrymandering." sign of gerrymandering in the boundaries of the congressional districts of your State? Point out the wrongs of gerrymandering. Bound the congressional district in which you live.

5. By referring to the Constitution answer the following questions, and give reasons for the constitutional provisions: How is a member

of the House of Representatives elected, and what is the length of his term of office (3) What are the qualifications of a member of the House as to age, citizenship and residence (5) When is a person qualified to vote for representatives in the House (4)? How is a vacancy in the House of Representatives filled (12)? What are the qualifications of a senator as to age, citizenship and residence (18)? When does the Vice-President have a right to vote in the Senate (20)? Who presides at an impeachment trial when the President has been impeached (22) If the right to membership in Congress is contested how is the question decided (26)? How is the compensation of members of Congress determined (32)? What special privileges do members of Congress enjoy (33)? What circumstance will prevent a member of Congress from receiving an appointment to office under the federal government (34)? What circumstance will disqualify a man for membership in Congress (35) ?

6. Should a member of the lower House consider the interests of his district as being of more importance than those of the nation? Should a senator place the interests of his State above those of the nation?

7. Congressmen receive twenty cents for every mile of travel to Washington and return to their homes. What is the amount of the mileage of the member of the House who represents your district?

8. Debate the question: Resolved, that the present system of electing United States senators ought not to be changed.

A Hint on Reading.-Woodburn, "The American Republic and its Government."'

XVII

CONGRESS AT WORK

The Assembling of Congress and its Adjournment. Every year on the first Monday in December (25) Congress assembles in the Capitol at Washington, the Senate occupying the north wing of the building and the House the south wing. It convenes and adjourns by virtue of constitutional authority, and not by virtue of a summons or an order from the executive.

The self-convening and the self-adjourning feature of Congress is a valuable item of American civil liberty. The political history of England had taught the framers that it was dangerous to make the assemblage and adjournment of the legislature dependent upon the action of the executive. Kings had refused to call Parliament together when the country needed its services, and had dissolved it as soon as it showed opposition to the royal will. So the framers placed the assembling and adjournment of Congress quite beyond the power of the executive (25).

The President, however, may on extraordinary occasions convene Congress in an extra session (100), and he may also adjourn Congress if the two Houses cannot themselves agree upon a day for adjournment (101).

When making laws the two Houses must carry on work during the same period of time, although either House may sit alone for a period not exceeding three days (31).

The first Congress began its legal existence March 4, 1789, and expired at the hour of noon March 4, 1791, when the term of the first elected representative ended; the second Congress came into power March 4, 1791, and ended its