In addition to the cloister schools and the cathedral schools, Charles the Great established a special school for the training of prospective courtiers and the sons of the nobles assembled about him. This school, which seems to have had a prototype in Merovingian times, was under the supervision of Alcuin, and was in a certain sense the anticipation of the later university. Even the great king himself sat as a learner in this school, and gathered about him the greatest scholars of his time-Alcuin, the Anglo-Saxon; Peter, the Lombard; Paulus Diaconus, the Lombard, and Eginhard, his trusted scribe and biographer. This palace school (Schola Palatina) continued with some interruptions into the time of Otto the Great, when it again flourished as the representative of the best culture of the Holy Roman Empire, in that period of Latinized German culture which produced the Christianized Latin dramas of the nun-poetess, Hroswitha, of Gandersheim, who attempted to supplant Terence, and the Latinized German epic "Waltharius," in Latin hexametres.

But the era of feudalism brought with it the "seven frivolities" (Frömmigkeiten), riding, swimming, archery, fencing, hunting, whist playing, rhyming, in place of the " seven liberal arts."

As the German cities grew in importance, under the protecting care of the citadels (Burgen), the burgher class took up the question of education and established city or burgher schools, after the general type or model of the monastic schools, and under the supervision of the church. Thus the old nominal division of the arts into what we now term humanistic and technical, had an opportunity to take a new course in the hands of the people, although the burgher schools, for at least three hundred years, made little progress in the direction of separate technical education.

The strife between the Nominalists and the Realists among the scholastics of the eleventh century kept alive the interest in learning, and prepared the way for the great universities. The schoolmen shook with their discussions the foundation of philosophy, theology and the Church itself. The world-renowed Abelard laid the foundations of the University of Paris, al

though his memory is best perpetuated by the Gothic tomb that marks the resting place of himself and his Héloise in Père la Chaise. As the University of Paris became center for theology and philosophy, so Bologna in Italy had the great university for law, and Salerno, in Spain, that for medicine. These three institutions drew thousands of eager students to their halls from Germany and other lands of Western Europe during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and were the forerunners of the German universities.

In the year 1348 the first German university was founded in the city of Prag, then the residence of the German Emperor. The Emperor, Charles the Fourth, received the charter from the Pope for the establishment of the new university, but the institution was modeled rather after the University of Paris than that of Bologna. Other German universities were founded in quick succession. The University of Vienna, 1384; Heidelberg in 1386; Cologne, 1388; Erfurt, 1392; Würzburg, 1402; Leipzig, by a large migration of students from Prag, 1409; Rostock, 1419. These universities were church institutions, erected by the authority of the Pope, and students and teachers were clericals until the dawn of the new humanism in the middle of the fifteenth century. The instruction given by the faculty of philosophy was about analogous to that of the upper classes of the gymnasium of the present day.

The humanistic impulse given by the fugitive Greek scholars in Western Europe after the fall of Constantinople, 1453, introduced a new spirit into European learning. The study of the great masters of antique literature in the original texts brought about a reform in the Latin idiom of the German schools. Here, as elsewhere, Latin had seriously deteriorated in the hands of the clericals. Attacks were made by the humanists upon the barbarized Latin, even of the universities, by such. men as Petrus Luder and Conrad Celtis, and more successfully by the exemplary Latin style of the two greatest humanists, Erasmus and Reuchlin. The humanistic movement wrought a reform in German schools, and led to the founding of the new universities: Greifswald, 1456; Freiburg, 1457; Basel, 1460; Ingolstadt, 1472; Trier, 1473; Mainz, 1477; Tübingen,

1477; Wittenberg, 1502; and Frankfurt, 1506. Classical Latin style became the ideal to which now both teacher and pupil aspired. The great Latin and Greek writers were studied in the original and unlocked the mysteries of antique philosophy, literature and art. The spirit of humanism made for larger liberty of inquiry and for enlightenment, and was bitterly hostile to the dogmatism of the mediæval church, as is clearly seen in the famous" Epistolæ Obscurorum Virorum." It prepared the way and offered the weapons for the Reformation.

With the Reformation and the humanistic school reform came new universities, embodying the principles and expressing the impulses of the new time. Out of this period grew the Protestant universities: Marburg, 1529; Königsberg, 1544; Jena, 1556; Helmstädt, 1576; Altdorf, 1573 (1622); Giessen, 1607; Rinteln, 1621; Strassburg, 1621; Duisburg, 1655: Kiel, 1665: and the Catholic universities: Dillingen, 1549; Würzburg, 1582; Paderborn, 1615; Salzburg, 1623; Osnabrück, 1630; Bamberg, 1648; Olmütz, 1581; Gratz, 1586; Linz, 1636; Innsbruck, 1672; the last four being outside of Germany proper. Unfortunately the Reformation inaugurated the era of particularism in education, changing the universities from international to provincial and confessional institutions.

The lower schools of the Humanistic-Reformation period as well as the universities underwent a great change, both in attitude and in curriculum. Some of Melanchthon's best efforts lay in the improvement of the instruction of the lower schools, which prepared for the university. New text-books and new methods were introduced, and the pupils drew their knowledge of the classics from the originals themselves.

At the beginning of the seventeenth century a new cultural revival began in Germany, resulting in the formation of patriotic speech societies (sprachgesellschaften) such as the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft of 1617. But the Thirty Years' War broke out in 1618 and retarded this movement for more than half a century.

It was not until the rise of Pietism under Spener, about 1670, that the signs of a new educational epoch began to appear. The pietistic movement found a university center at Halle, and

was represented by August Hermann Francke, the founder of the famous Francke Institutions at Halle, and by Thomasius, who had come from Leipzig, and by Christian Wolff, the great philosopher, who, like Francke and Thomasius, had left the University of Leipzig. The impulse which pietism gave to German education was in the direction of popularizing learning. Francke gave his attention to the institutions, particularly the Orphanage and Pædagogium; Thomasius made the great innovation of delivering university lectures in German instead of Latin; and Christian Wolff interpreted philosophy for the people. The significance of this movement toward popular education was immediately felt throughout Germany, and even in far-off America, and prepared the way for new reforms and new institutions on both sides of the Atlantic.

The pietistic awakening was followed by a great literary revival in Germany. A new era was opened by the introduction of English literature and English free thought in the first half of the eighteenth century. In the midst of this cultural revival Frederick the Great ascended the Prussian throne, and began that series of reforms which laid the foundation of the Prussia and the new German Empire of to-day. Among Frederick's innovations the school reform is significant. Through his Minister of Justice, von Zedlitz, he introduced important changes in the Gymnasium in 1779. Latin was left with its former prestige; Greek was increased; French became a regular subject of instruction, and other foreign languages were taught as circumstances demanded. German was given more attention; history and geography were made favorite subjects; arithmetic was accentuated; physics and natural history and drawing became required studies; logic and the history of philosophy took the place of jurisprudence and speculative philosophy. The old idea of a court school had assumed a new form in the eighteenth century in the demand for more practical education, and taken shape in the so-called military school (Ritterakademie), a highly developed form of which was to be found in the famous Karlschule at Stuttgart, where the poet Schiller was educated.

* The opening of the University of Göttingen (1737) formed an important link in the Anglo-German relations in the early Georgian Period.

Another step in the school reform of Prussia was the creation of a board of educational control (Oberschulbehörde) in 1787, which was the forerunner of the control exercised by the Kultusministerium of the present time. Under the direction of this board a seminary for teachers was established at Halle after the model of that in Göttingen, and a system of examinations was introduced as a preliminary to entering the university. This attempt to bring the schools under state control was completed by the act known as "Das allgemeine Landrecht" of 1794. In 1801 the university was placed under the direction of the Minister, Wilhelm von Humboldt. In 1812 a general examination of candidates for the profession of teaching was introduced.

It was during this period that the new universities of Berlin and Bonn were founded, as expressions of the higher interest in the modern disciplines in which natural science and philosophy play such a significant rôle. At Berlin, in particular, were gathered the greatest representatives of modern science in all Germany, thus giving the new university, from the start, that initial impulse which foreshadowed its position at the head of the German schools.

The next serious change in the Prussian school system was introduced in 1816 by Süvern, whose curriculum strongly favored Greek. Greek disputations interchanged with those in Latin. The subjects had the following hours throughout the Gymnasium course: Greek, 50; Latin, 76; German, 44; history, 30; geography, 30; mathematics, 60; religion, drawing, writing, were all made obligatory. As might have been expected, the growing interest in the realia, especially in natural history and politics, soon kindled a revolt against Greek and the excessive number of hours required of the pupil. Accordingly, the "Circularreskript" of 1837 reduced the hours of instruction in the Gymnasium from 320 to 270, and the term of study from ten years to nine. Greek instruction was reduced to 40 hours, and translation into Greek was eliminated. Mathematics was reduced from 60 to 33 hours; Latin instruction was increased to 86 hours, and German became the language of instruction in the schools. The Gymnasium was recognized as the preparatory school for the university.