professorships, (2 vacant;) in the faculty of law, 4 ordinary professors and 1 extraordinary; in the faculty of medicine, 6 ordinary professorships (1 vacant) and 2 extraordinary, 5 docentes, and 1 anatomical prosector; in the faculty of philosophy, the historico-philological section, 10 ordinary professorships, (2 vacant,) 2 extraordinary, and 7 docentes; the mathematico-physical section, 7 ordinary professorships, (2 vacant,) and 7 privatim docentes. The teachers of modern languages were 8, and the instructors of drawing, music, and gymnastics, 3. In all there are 31 ordinary professorships, (7 vacant,) 5 extraordinary professors, 19 privatim docentes,* and 12 special instructors, or a total of 60 teachers actually engaged.

To become a university student by matriculation the candidate must pass an examination in all the branches taught in the lyceums and enroll himself in one of the four faculties, and also in one of the six nations into which the students are divided according to the division of the country from which they come. At the head of each nation is a professor, called inspector, appointed by the chancellor for three years, and a vice president, called curator, who is elected by the members from the graduates belonging to the nation. Each nation has supervision of the morals of its members and holds weekly meetings for literary exercises. Its disciplinary power extends to the exclusion of an immoral member for a period not exceeding two years from the university and from Helsingfors. Each nation taxes its members for necessary expenses, both for its special purposes and for the general purposes of the six nations; these, as a corporation, own a beautiful brick building, erected by subscriptions from the whole country. In this students' house there are no lodging rooms, but rooms are provided for meetings of the nations and faculties, large reading rooms, supplied with periodicals of different countries, (including America,) a large hall for festive occasions, and a library of 17,000 volumes.

As regards studies and internal life, the university is established on the Swedish or German, and not on the English-American plan. There are no lodgings provided for the students in the university buildings, no classes or required curriculum of studies, and no special text books. The instruction is given by lectures, and not by recitations. The student, after consultation with the dean of the faculty to which he belongs, is free to choose whatever studies he pleases and is referred to the best authors in the respective sciences; but the students who are not graduates of any faculty must regularly attend the lectures of at least two professors. Every ordinary professor lectures at least four hours a week and the extraordinary professor and the docentes two hours a

*These are the Privatdocenten of the German universities. Authorized by the authorities to deliver lectures, under certain restrictions, on the same subjects which the regular professors teach, they form a very useful part of the instructing body of a German university, for which in this country we have no equivalent either in name or fact.

week. The lectures may also be and are often attended by persons not matriculated.

Each faculty awards, on approved examinations in the prescribed studies, its own diplomas, there being two degrees, that of candidate or master and that of licentiate or doctor in each faculty; but nobody can take a learned degree in the faculties of theology, medicine, and jurisprudence if he be not a graduate of the philosophical faculty. To get the diploma of doctor in any faculty the candidate is required to write and print, and before the professors of the faculty to publicly defend, a scientific treatise on some subject in which he has made original research.

Besides these learned degrees there are many examinations for special professions, for ministers, for lawyers and judges, for teachers, &c., which are exacted before the student can obtain any official appointment. The aspirants to these, comprising the greater part of the students, are not obliged to take any philosophical degree before entering their respective faculties, although many do so. In the faculty of medicine there are, however, no civil service examinations separate from those for the learned degrees, because every student of that faculty must have graduated in the faculty of philosophy.

In the fall term of 1875 there were 642 resident students at the university, exclusive of about 250 who were matriculated, but for various reasons absent from Helsingfors. No fixed time of residence being required for any examination, many students, on the ground of the high prices of living at Helsingfors or for other reasons, spend a part of their study time in the country as private tutors or studying in their homes; and many graduates, although not intending to take any higher degree and partly occupied by other business, continue to be members of the university in order to have the advantage of using its libraries, collections, and other apparatus of learning. Of these 642 students 146 were graduates of the philosophical faculty and partly also of some of the other faculties, 111 belonged to the faculty of theology, 151 to the faculty of jurisprudence, 61 to the faculty of medicine, and 319 to the faculty of philosophy, with 146 in the historico-philological and 173 in the mathematico-physical sections.

The university, which is the cherished pride of the people of Finland, is richly endowed. The funds of the university, exclusive of all buildings and their equipments, amounted in 1874 to 3,559,355 marks, (about $712,000 gold.) The total income of the university the said year was 855,881 marks, (about $170,000 in gold,) two-thirds of which were directly or indirectly appropriated by the state. The expenses amounted the same year to 625,978 marks, (about $125,000 in gold,) viz: salaries, 371,313 marks; libraries and collections, 65,559 marks; repair of buildings, &c., 24,383 marks; and various purposes, 90,534 marks; thus leav ing a surplus of income of 229,903 marks to be devoted to the increase of the funds.

No tuition fees are charged the students, but on the contrary many allowances or stipends are paid indigent students. The university also sends, at its own cost, every year at least three graduate students to study in foreign countries, one of them especially for pedagogical studies.

The buildings of the university, all of brick and erected in a beautiful style, are: (1) the university house, in which are the lecture rooms, halls, and offices; (2) the library, in which there are 140,000 volumes; (3) chemical laboratory and lecture room, erected in 1870; (4) anatomical museum and dissection rooms; (5) astronomical observatory; (6) meteorological and magnetic observatory; (7) botanic garden and conservatory; (8) gymnastic halls; and (9) the above named students' house. In addition to the collections and facilities of illustration indicated by the buildings in which they are placed, there are the mineralogical and geological cabinets, the zoological collections, the ethnographical and historical museum, collections of coins and medals, physical apparatus, &c. There are also under the charge of the professors of medicine two large state hospitals to which the students of medicine resort for instruction and practice.

IV. THE SPECIAL SCHOOLS.

(a) The polytechnic school at Helsingfors admits, on examination in the branches taught in the Realschule, pupils of at least 14 years of age. The school is divided into two departments, the preparatory and the technical. In the former, which occupies a term of two years, the instruction is the same for all pupils, drawing, mathematics, and natural philosophy being the principal subjects, besides some English, German, and Russian. The technical department provides special courses of instruction for (1), architects, (2) civil engineers, (3) mechanical engineers and constructors, (4) chemists and mining engineers, and (5) surveyors, each course occupying two to five years, exclusive of the time spent in the. preparatory department. This institution, which received its present organization in 1872 and is wholly supported by the state, had in 1874 8 ordinary and 7 assistant teachers. The number of pupils was 105, 34 of whom belonged to the preparatory department, and 15 were extra pupils not following the regular course of instruction.

(b) The teachers' seminaries or normal schools were established to meet the want of good teachers for the popular schools. There are 3 seminaries in operation, one Finnish, with separate departments for ladies. and gentlemen, established in 1863, and two Swedish, one for ladies and the other for gentlemen, established in 1872 and 1873. The course of instruction, which embraces all the subjects taught in the popular schools and pedagogy, occupies four years, the last being devoted to practice in the model schools and Kindergarten attached. Candidates must have completed their eighteenth year. A part of the students get lodgings, fuel, and board at the institution. Tuition is free and stipends or allowances are made by the state toward the expenses for

board, books, &c., of indigent students. In 1874 there were 272 pupils at these institutions.

(c) Agricultural schools.-There is one institute of agriculture, established at Mustiala in 1837, and nine agricultural schools of lower grades, established at different periods since 1858. The institute is divided into two departments, one scientific, requiring a thorough common education of the students entering, and the other giving the elements of the agricultural sciences in the most popular and practical form. Each course occupies two years. The scientific course is exclusively attended by persons of educated families, many of them having been students at the university before entering the institute, and the popular one mostly by sons or servants of peasants or farmers. To the institute is attached a large farm, which the pupils have to cultivate in order to get practice in scientific agriculture. The lower agricultural schools have only the popular course and are located on private or public farms. In 1873 the aggregate number of pupils was 235 and that of teachers 28.

There are also several schools for butter and cheese making, some of which are connected with the agricultural schools. In each of the eight counties there is a plough-instructor, who goes round and spends some time with farmers who wish his instruction in adopting new methods in the cultivation of their fields and the breeding of cattle.

(d) A forest institute was established in 1862, to secure intelligent inspectors and managers of the large public forests. The institute was closed in 1866 on account of the lack of pupils, but it was reopened in 1874. The course extends throughout two years and embraces the forest sciences. The candidates must be graduates of the lyceums or students of the university. During the summer vacation the pupils are required to to practise in the public forest, within the boundaries of which the school is situated. The students have free tuition and lodging at the institute.

(e) The navigation schools are six in number, three of them established in 1812, each with two departments, for mates and for captains. Before entering the mates' department the candidate must have been at sea four years, and, for the captains' department, besides this, have practised as mate two years. Instruction is given in mathematics and the science of navigation, in English, book-keeping, and penmanship. The course in each department can be completed in one year, but requires commonly two to three years. These schools are open only from the middle of October to the end of April. The captains on steamers have, besides the course in navigation, to pass an examination in the management of engines.

(f) A military school has since 1780 been in operation at Fredriksbaum. Besides the preparatory course of three years in the common subjects of instruction, the special course in the military branches occupies the same term of three years. All the pupils reside in the build

ings of the institution, and are under constant supervision and military discipline. The management of the school is divided between the Finnish authorities and the Board of Russian Military Schools at St. Petersburg. The school is also assisted in a slight degree by the Russian government. The language of instruction is Swedish, except in a few branches in the special department, in which it is Russian. Only sons of Finnish parents are admitted as pupils. In 1873 the school had 122 pupils and 17 teachers, exclusive of the military officers.

(g) Technical Realschulen the two schools are called which were established in 1847 to give the instruction needed by boys going into the mechanical trades. The course of instruction extends through four years and embraces, besides the common branches, geometry, algebra and trigonometry, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, and mechanics. The pupils must be at least 12 years of age. Small shops for instruction in mechanics are attached to these schools.

For almost the same purpose, or for giving to apprentices the elements of mechanical science needed in their occupations, there is in every city a Sunday school, kept on Sunday evenings, and in several places besides this two or three evenings a week. These Sunday schools are thus quite different from the American Sunday schools for religious instruc tion.

But all these schools are not in a condition to meet the wants of the industrial classes. They are therefore to be completely reorganized, and a system of industrial drawing and evening schools is to be estab. lished reaching all parts of the country.

(h) The schools for deaf-mutes are four in number. The first was estab lished in 1858. The pupils generally board in the school and are instructed by signs in the common branches of study, including religion, and in some manual work. The speaking method is also used with pupils capable of learning it.

(i) The asylums for the blind, two in number, were established, the first in 1866 and the other in 1870. Both of them are boarding schools. The pupils are taught to read the blind types and oral instruction is given in the common branches. Musical exercises are much in use. The pupils also get instruction in some manual work in order to be able to support themselves. The aggregate number of pupils was in 1873 only 32 and that of teachers 7.

SCHOOL ATTENDANCE.

The attendance on all the public schools, except the popular and the Sunday schools, is very regular. Pupils are, as a rule, admitted only at the beginning of the school year, and in case of sickness the parents or guardians must give written notice thereof to the master of the school. This rule cannot for various reasons be kept up in the popular schools, especially in those in the country. Of the pupils enrolled in the popular schools in the year 1874 and 1875, about 65 per cent. attended