den, whence Christianity and civilization were introduced. In the year named, Finland was conquered by Russia, and, in accordance with a generous assurance of Emperor Alexander I to its first parliament, connected with that empire as a grand duchy, with laws and government of its own. The Emperor of Russia is grand duke of Finland and the leader of its political relations with other countries, but in all other respects the government of Russia and that of Finland are distinct, Russia being an absolute and Finland a constitutional monarchy. The legislative body of Finland is the Diet, called "Landdag," composed of representatives of the four estates: the nobles, the clergy and teachers, the inhabitants of the cities, and the peasants or farmers. Each estate meets and votes in its own chamber, each chamber having one vote, and all four must unite on questions involving new or additional taxation or touching the fundamental laws. The representatives are elected by their respective estates, except the nobles, the head of each family or name in the nobility having a seat in the assembly; which, according to a fundamental act sanctioned by the Emperor Alexander II, must be called together at least once every five years. The administrative or executive department consists of a governor general and a senate of 18 members, appointed by the grand duke for a term of three years. The senate is divided into two departments, one of which is the highest court of appeals from lower courts, and six bureaus, one being for ecclesiastical and school affairs. With the exception of the governor general, all the functionaries of state and the church must be natives of Finland. They are as a rule appointed by reason of excellent character and retained during good behavior. The prevailing or state church is the Lutheran, the Russian or Greek Catholic Church not having more than 40,000 members. The grand duchy has also its own military force, coins of its own, (1 Finnish mark, silver, = 1 franc, or about 20 cents,) and separate finances. Its state revenues, which in 1874 amounted to 23,750,000 marks, are expended only on its own government, and customs are paid also for articles imported from Russia.

THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.

In Finland, as in other European countries, the higher or classical schools are much older than the schools of lower grades. The former were established during the Middle Ages through the church and for ecclesiastical purposes. Since that time these schools have been much changed, but they still devote themselves to classical instruction and admit pupils at a very early age. As a completion of the classical schools and as a higher educational and scientific institution, the University of Finland was founded in 1640.

The first step toward popular education was taken in 1686, in the enactment of a law obliging the clergy to hold an annual examination in every parish to ascertain the ability of the children to read and their knowledge of the catechism. Without these acquirements no person

can be confirmed by the church, which rite is necessary to obtain a license to marry or enjoy ecclesiastical privileges. This act is still the compulsory law of Finland, the result of which has been that the ability to read is pretty common among the people; but the means of extending the privileges of education to all classes were first provided in 1866 by a law establishing with state aid public common schools (Lägre elementärskolan) throughout the country. That was the best work of the "school revival" of Finland, where, during the last decade, much has been done for education. The old schools have been in many respects reformed and their course of instruction enlarged, and new schools for secondary instruction of both sexes and special schools of different kinds established; more attention is paid to school architecture and furniture and to methods of teaching; teachers' associations are founded and school meetings held; the state and local appropriations for school purposes have been widely increased, and the government of the schools separated from that of the church. At present the question of the day is to get good industrial and drawing schools in all parts of the country. The school system now in actual operation embraces:

I. The popular schools for common education, established as well in country places as in the cities;

II. Secondary schools, which impart a general culture superior to that given in the popular schools and lay the foundation of the scientific instruction, which is carried further in the university and the polytechnicum. This grade includes (a) the lyceums, or the old classical schools; (b) the Realschulen, for the studies which in America are commonly called the "English branches ;" and (c) the ladies' schools, for a higher “Eng. lish" education of girls;

III. The university; and

IV. Special schools to meet the educational wants of different occupations and exceptional classes. Such are: (a) the polytechnic school; (b) the teachers' seminaries or normal schools; (c) the institute of agriculture and the lower agricultural schools; (d) the forest institute; (e) the navigation schools; (f) the military school; (g) the lower technical schools, Sunday and evening schools; (h) deaf mutes; and (i) schools for the blind.

SCHOOL GOVERNMENT.

Until 1869 the government of the schools was vested in the authorities of the church, and the ecclesiastical board of the senate is still the highest authority in school matters; but in that year a state board of education (Öfverstyrelsen för skolväsendet) was instituted, consisting of a president and six members, one of whom, with an assistant since 1875, is specially charged with the supervision of the popular schools and the teachers' seminaries. This board has the general supervision of all the popular and secondary schools, and must every year publish a statistical report on their condition and work. The board appoints teachers to the secondary schools, designating among the candidates

the person who, being of good moral character, presents the best evidence of his or her knowledge and ability to teach.

The local supervision is vested in a school committee, elected by the inhabitants of the city or town in which the school is situated. The school committees of the popular schools (of which women may be and often are members) have in their hands the economical management of the schools and the appointment of teachers. Some of the cities have elected special superintendents of their popular schools. All ordinary or regular teachers hold office during good behavior, and assistant teachers for a year or a term.

The university and the special schools, except the schools for deaf mutes and for the blind, which are subordinate to the state board of education, have their separate authorities.

I. THE POPULAR SCHOOLS.

Reading and spelling are generally taught in the families or in the country by ambulatory village schools, which are under the supervision of a minister in each parish. These schools are of a very low grade, but they have until lately been the only opportunities offered for learning in country places. Reading Bible history and learning the catechism, generally by heart, are the only subjects taught, and the teacher, who moves from place to place and boards with the farmers whose children he or she teaches, does not know much more. In the cities primary instruction is given in permanent schools.

In 1863 a teachers' seminary was opened at Jyväskylä, and in 1866 a law was passed establishing public popular schools to give family and village school instruction in every commune or town. Since that time popular schools have continually been growing up in different localities. The country schools are generally ungraded, having only one (male or female) teacher, but in the cities the popular schools are of two grades, lower and higher, each grade having one or more classes and teachers. In the lower grades boys and girls are taught together, but in the higher grades they generally have separate schools or separate hours. In 1871 there were in actual operation 140; in 1872, 192; in 1873, 257; and in 1874, 324 schools, of which 100 were located in the cities and 224 in the country. The number of teachers was, in 1874, 387, of whom 189 were men and 198 women. One hundred and fifty-two of the teachers were graduates of the teachers' seminaries and 25 had studied at the university, the rest having come from different occupations.

In all these schools, except the city schools of lower grade, there were taught religion, reading, spelling, and writing of the mother tongue, arithmetic, geography, and singing, and besides these some or all of the following subjects, viz: history, elements of natural philosophy and history, drawing, geometry, and gymnastics. The girls are, in most of the schools, instructed in needlework and the boys in some simple manual work.

The schools of this grade have during the last five years been partly modified as to their course of instruction, in order to put them in accordance with the popular schools and meet different wants of life, the salaries of the teachers have been raised, and the names of the schools changed. The great grievance of these schools is the abundance of modern languages taught. There are both the "mother tongues," (Finnish and Swedish,) Russian, for political and commercial reasons, and the three great languages of civilization, German, French, and English. All these languages are not taught in every school, but a great deal of time is nevertheless spent on grammars and vocabularies. The course of instruction embraces also, as in the popular schools, religion, which is taught in all grades of the schools. The pupils admitted to these schools must be at least nine years of age, (the average being ten to eleven years,) and pass an examination in Bible history and the Lutheran catechism, in the reading, writing, and spelling of the mother tongue, in the elements of grammar, in the four fundamental rules of arithmetic, and in geography. Most of the pupils attain these acquirements in private schools or under private tutors; very few hitherto in the popular schools.

(1) The Lyceums, including the old "higher elementary schools" and "Gymnasia," carry their pupils (only boys) through seven classes, the highest of which occupies two years, to the university. The principal subjects taught, besides religion, Swedish, and Finnish, are Latin, five to seven hours a week in every class; mathematics, including arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry; universal and Finnish history and geography; and German and Russian. Instruction is also given in natural philosophy and sciences, in logic, and as elective studies in Greek, French, drawing, singing, and gymnastics. In one lyceum at Helsingfors, called Reallyceum, Latin is an elective study and special attention is given to Russian and other modern languages.

Two of the lyceums, one Swedish at Helsingfors and one Finnish at Tavastehus, are called normal lyceums, because teacher candidates for any of the secondary schools, after having passed their examinations at the university, must spend one year at these institutions in peda gogical study and practice, under the direction of four head masters, in the subjects of religion, history and geography, mathematics, and languages.

In 1874 there were in all 18 lyceums, 9 of which were complete with seven classes, 7 had only the four lower classes, and 2 new ones, which are gradually becoming complete, only the two lowest classes.

(2) The Realschulen, or the old lower elementary schools, impart a more thorough instruction in the common or English branches of study than is given in the popular schools, and prepare their pupils for the polytechnic and other special schools. Much attention is paid to mathe

matics, natural philosophy, and drawing. German and English are taught in all these schools, and in some of them Russian also. Instruction is also given in book-keeping. The number of these schools was, in 1874, 33, one being located in each of the cities of the country. The Realschulen are still under reorganization. Some of them are to have four classes, with a two years' course in the highest, and some only the four lower classes.

(3) In the Ladies' schools instruction is given in the following subjects, viz: religion, Swedish and Finnish, German and French, (either of them elective,) history and geography, arithmetic and elements of geometry, natural sciences, drawing, singing, gymnastics, and needle work. There were in 1874, in all, 7 public schools for ladies, one of them, at Helsingfors, being of a higher order, with seven classes, the others having only four classes. In the ladies' school at Helsingfors instruction is also given in the Russian language and in a separate class pedagogy is studied theoretically and practically by ladies who intend to be teachers in public or private ladies' schools.

All classes, with the exceptions named, have a course of one year each. Promotions from class to class are made only once a year, and, as many pupils do not meet the requirements, they have to remain two years in the same class.

III. THE UNIVERSITY.

The University of Finland was founded at Åbo, the former capital of the country, in 1640, and, in consequence of a disastrous fire, moved to Helsingfors in 1828. The government of the institution rests with the chancellor, the rector, (or president,) and the consistory. The present chancellor is the eldest son of the Emperor, represented at Helsingfors by a vice chancellor, formerly professor in jurisprudence and member of the senate. The rector is designated by the chancellor every three years out of three members of the faculty who are elected by the regular professors. The consistory, of which the rector is president, is composed of the regular professors. The rector and the deans of the faculties are a commission or board for discipline.

There are four faculties or schools, viz, theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and philosophy, which latter is divded into two sections, the historico-philological and the mathematico-physical. In each faculty there are several "ordinary" or regular professors, and, when it is found to be necessary for the instruction of the students or profitable as regards scientific investigations, there are appointed "extraordinary" professors and docentes, all of whom must have acquired the diplomas of doctor in their respective faculties and publicly proved their capacity to undertake original scientific research. Besides these there are in the faculty of philosophy special "lecturers," or teachers of modern languages, and instructors in drawing, music, and gymnastics.

In the fall term 1875 there were in the faculty of theology 4 ordinary