stop to our intercourse with them was deemed advisable by congress. Accordingly, on the 1st of March, congress interdicted, by law, all trade and intercourse with France and England.

Sec. 22. Mr. Jefferson's second term of office expired on the 3d of March. Having previously declined a re-election, James Madison was chosen president, and George Clinton vice-president.

NOTES.

The

Sec. 23. MANNERS. The bitterness of partyspirit, which had now raged in the United States for some years, began to have a visible effect upon society. It interrupted, to no small extent, the general harmony, and even restrained the intercourse of friends and neighborhoods. strife for power, also introduced a disposition to intrigue; political cunning became fashionable, and political duplicity lost much of its deformity. These things necessarily affected the state of manners. They withdrew the finger of derision, which used to point at meanness of all kinds, and blunted that love of honor, and manliness of conduct, which existed before. Cunning began to take the place of wisdom; professions answered instead of deeds; and duplicity stalked forth with the boldness of integrity.

Sec. 24. RELIGION. Powerful revivals of religion pervaded the country, during this period, and tended strongly to prevent open infidelity and to check the tide of pollution, which was invisibly spread over the land.

Sec. 25. TRADE AND COMMERCE. Trade and commerce made great advances about the year 1803. The European powers being involved in war, and the United States remaining neutral,

our vessels carried to Europe, not only the produce of our own country, but also the produce of other countries. This is usually called the carrying trade, and was very profitable to the country.

In 1805, 6, and 7, our average annual exports amounted to one hundred and two millions five hundred and sixtyseven thousand four hundred and fifty-four dollars, of which forty-four millions eight hundred and sixty-three thousand five hundred and seventeen dollars, were for domestic produce; and fifty-seven millions seven hundred and one thousand nine hundred and thirty-seven dollars, for foreign produce. The annual average of imports during these three years, amounted to about one hundred and forty millions of dollars; a large proportion of the articles forming this amount, were re-exported to the West Indies, South America, and elsewhere.

After the year 1807, the commercial restrictions laid by France and England, began to curtail our trade; and the embargo, imposed at the close of the same year, by our government, interrupted it still more essentially.

Sec. 26. AGRICULTURE. Agriculture, during a part of this period, received great encouragement from our foreign trade. Europe being involved in contentions, the people had little leisure there to cultivate the soil; they were therefore supplied from other countries, and the United States furnished them with a great amount, and were / thence deriving great profits, when the commercial restrictions interrupted the trade.

The first merino sheep were introduced into the country, in 1802, by Robert R. Livingston, and the same year, a greater number, one hundred, by General Humphreys, then late minister to Spain. Great attention was paid to the breeding of them, and they are now numerous in the United States.

Sec. 27. ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. manufactures still progressed.

Arts and

Sec. 28. POPULATION. The population of the

1

United States, at the close of Mr. Jefferson's administration, was about seven millions.

Sec. 29. EDUCATION. The enlightened views respecting the importance of general information, entertained before, continued to prevail. New literary and scientific publications were commenced; more enlightened methods of instruction were adopted; academies were mul tiplied; colleges founded; and theological seminaries liberally endowed.

A theological seminary was founded at Andover, Massachusetts, in 1808. The amount, which has been contributed for its permanent use, and which was given by six families, is more than three hundred thousand dollars. This sum includes the permanent fund, library, and public buildings. In 1822, the officers were four professors, and the number of students, one hundred and thirty-two. The library contains about five thousand volumes. A majority of the students are supported, in whole or in part, by charity.

34

UNITED STATES.

PERIOD X.

DISTINGUISHED FOR MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION, AND THE LATE WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN,

Extending from the inauguration of President Madison, 1809, to the inauguration of James Monroe, as president of the United States, 1817

Sec. 1. On the 4th of March, 1809, Mr. Madison was inducted into the office of president of the United States, according to the form prescribed by the constitution.

The situation of the United States, on the accession of Mr. Madison to the presidency, was in several respects gloomy and critical. The two great powers of Europe, France and England, were still at war, and were continuing to array against each other the most violent commercial edicts, both in contravention of the laws of nations, and of their own solemn treaties; and calculated to injure and destroy the commerce of na tions, desirous of preserving a neutrality. America was also farther suffering under the restric tions of commerce, imposed by her own government. Every effort to secure the due observance of her rights, from the contending powers, had hitherto failed, and the sad alternative was presenting itself to the American people, either to suffer the evils growing out of foreign and do

mestic restrictions, or to take up arms, and risk the consequence of a war with the belligerents.

Sec. 2. Previously to the adjournment of the last congress, under Mr. Jefferson, an act passed, as already noticed, 1st of March, repealing the then existing embargo, and interdicting commercial intercourse with France and Great Britain. Should either of these powers, however, revoke their edicts, the president was authorized to renew the intercourse.

April 18th, the British minister, Mr. Erskine, informed the secretary of state, Mr. Smith, that his majesty's government, considering the nonintercourse act, passed March 1st, as having produced an equality in the relations of the two belligerent powers with respect to the United States, would be willing to rescind the orders in council of January and November, 1807, so far as it respected the United States, provided the president would issue a proclamation for the renewal of intercourse with Great Britain. This proposal was readily accepted. The British minister, in consequence of this acceptance, stated himself authorized to declare that the above orders in council would be withdrawn, as it respected the United States, on the succeeding 10th of June. A proclamation by the president soon after followed, renewing the intercourse with Great Britain, from and after that time.

This event produced the highest satisfaction throughout the country; but was speedily followed by a disappointment as great. The British government denied the authority of Mr. Erskine to enter into any such stipulations, and refused its ratification. On learning this refusal, the president issued his proclamation, August