gence, additions have been made so that the primitive check is brought into relation to factors present in the higher nerve centers. The original check is still to be discerned in children and in ourselves at moments of more spontaneous more natural and less educated conduct. The first impulse then felt to stop when failure becomes an established fact is the modern equivalent, the writer would suggest, of the primitive failure check. The more intelligent and the more highly trained the subject, the surer will be the refusal of the intelligence to let the primary defeat impulse have its own way. The failure reaction would be the natural response; the intelligence may decide otherwise. "Failure spurs me on," says my critic, Amberson; "with head bloody but unbowed I go to it." Here the intelligence takes cognizance of past successes under apparent defeat, and it is the hope of ultimate success which is allowed to govern the behavior. To fight on if defeat were really certain would be practically and biologically foolish-however spiritually admirable. In my friend's case it is really the hope of success, not the sense of failure, which incites.

The similarity of the failure reaction and fatigue is interesting. The reader may have thought of the defeated, contracted hydra as tired. The writer thinks that the animal, however tired, comes to quiescence not because his energies have been entirely exhausted. The picture is not that of ordinary fatigue as commonly observed. The familiar fatigue curve represents something very different from the abrupt changes of behavior and the sudden cessations described for hydra. Certainly the horse which refuses to pull and the dog starting for home are not used up. It is well understood It is well understood that in the weariness which one feels after prolonged exertion-as for example after a day's tramp-there are diverse elements of fatigue:1 muscle fatigue due to fatigue products in the cells; nerve deterioration (in perikarya, at synapses, at end plates);

A clear statement is given by Stiles, P. G., The Nervous System and its Conservation, 1914, p. 103.

and finally-this is the interesting fact in relation to our main topic-the persistent return from the musculature of inhibiting impulses, messages as it were from the tired muscles that it is time for a rest. These inhibiting impulses from the muscle cells seem to be very similar to the checking impulses obviously present in the failure reaction of hydra. This suggests that the primary checks in the latter case may not originate in the nervous system. They may be occasioned by fatigue products in other cells. It is not unlikely that after a certain amount of exertion, inhibitory messages begin to be sent to the control mechanism. Under conditions of success these slowing influences are constantly offset by activating stimuli, expressing cell changes wrought during success. But during prolonged failure, the inhibitory force accumulates, finally mounting to a critical point where it actually suppresses activity. The neutralizing influence of inner conditions obtaining only during success is necessary for continued activity.1

Whether the obviously conjectured parts of the foregoing paragraphs are correct or not, it would seem to be very probable that the success and failure behavior of hydra represents the success and failure behavior of animals generally, and even of man, in nearly its lowest terms. And the observations of success and failure behavior in the animals, as here sketched, makes us feel more certain of the reality, and enables us to understand better the magnitude, of the effects of success and failure in child development. We shall have to view these effects in children as arising out of causes that are deep-seated in the physiology. Nature has given the normal child a claim to the enjoyment of conditions making success not too difficult for him.2

Several practical implications of the general theory suggest themselves; and the

The primitive failure check-if there is really any such entitymay thus be a special form of fatigue, or it may be simply the absence of the success stimulus.

The wholesomeness of failure in certain special cases met with in school children, is of much interest as explained by Burnham, but does not concern us here. And the usefulness of difficulty-not failure in training is recognized.

writer would like to offer them as supplementing the teachings of the original essay on this subject.

Every pupil in the developmental school must be given the chance to make frequent successes: this Burnham has so luminously argued.

The fading of activity under failure has deep underlying causes.

The child's disinclination to continue in the face of repeated defeats is a fundamentally correct behavior. The remedy is readjustment of conditions and methods.

Elation in success is normal and fundamental, and may be taken as a helpful guide in determining the course of study.

The true function of praise is confirmation of the child's sense of success; praise should be simple, sensible, sympathetic, but truth

ful, and aimed at developing in the child a just estimate of his own performance.

The success teacher is the only kind of teacher having any right to be in the school room: the defeat teacher must be removed (or improved) at any cost.

A success teacher may become a failure teacher through overwork and poor health. The superintendent who induces tired teachers to spend their recuperation time in study of university courses, instead of using it in the recovery of abounding good health, has aggravated malignant astigmatism.

The school system should advance salaries as reward for gaining superabundant vigor; because only the teacher who feels equal to her own task can be an inspiring success teacher. The tired stenographer may spoil a letter, the tired teacher may spoil a life.

T

HE Daily Theme Eye began it. He read that enlightening essay in the freshman composition classes. Section 2B7 gasped at first, then argued vehemently. There was much questioning and airing of opinions. Section 2C4 yawned, and promptly forgot about it. But 2B7 insisted that the daily theme theory was the thing, insisted so earnestly that I determined to test their theory and give them the chance to put it into practice.

My proposition went forth to them: "You write a daily theme, five a week, and you need prepare no other English assignments. We'll have lectures and class discussions as usual. If we have an impromptu or extempore theme during the class hour, you may substitute that for your next day's daily theme. I make only one condition:

There were a few who said, "I've always had such a hard time writing themes-I think I ought to try this." Shades of our Puritan ancestors!

Eighteen names on the list, finally, and a representative group of freshmen, too, including all but seven in that class of twenty-five. Eighteen committed for the rest of the semester, of which three months remained. Sixty themes for each of them, and more than a thousand for me!

Morning after morning the same procedure: theme after theme slipped into the slot in my door, until the box was filled. Twelve-thirty was the deadline, and since most freshmen had a full morning schedule, that meant writing the theme the day before, or during convocation. I waited for something to happen. Never a missing theme, never a plea to be excused, never a quibble over a mark. Many of the themes were unusually good, and I read them in class. Interest ran high.

The second week passed, and the third. I looked for signs of weakening, but none came or if they were there, they were hidden. The themes covered every known form of subject matter; of "slump" in form or style there was none. After the fourth week, several intimated that they were running out of ideas for themes. About that time I tried to include in several of my lectures during the class hour something about observation. We had some amusing tests of the students' powers of observation during the hour. They began to look about them for bits of personal life material that could be used for themes. They wrote their family histories, their secret hopes and desires, their dreams, their achievements, their everything! I learned more about my students from those daily themes than I could have learned in a year of classassociation. The gates were open, and the flood poured forth daily. They had the habit, by this time, of saying what they actually felt and thought and believed. That was their theme material.

I found the theme correcting interesting, truly and actually interesting. I found also

that mistakes which had appeared in Monday's theme seldom appeared in Tuesday's. I found that more often than not, mistakes I had had to correct in the past were being corrected by the students in advance. Moreover, they learned the truth of Mr. Robinson's statement that "men are tormented by the opinions they have of things rather than the things themselves." In other words, a theme was no longer a bugbear, something to be dreaded and gotten over with as soon as possible. It was actually not half bad, once you got down to the business of writing one every day.

A month before the semester ended, we took stock. I submitted to the students a questionnaire including the following ques

tions:

1. Do you prefer daily themes to regular assignments?

2. Has it been difficult to find something to write about?

3. Have the daily themes bored you? 4. Has your facility for writing increased? 5. If you could stop now, would you? 6. Should you like to continue the plan next semester?

7. Have the class discussions been ade

quate?

8. What have you gained or lost?

9. Have you any suggestions for improve

ment of the system?

10. What is your opinion of the present method of requiring all themes graded below C to be rewritten?

I. DO YOU PREFER DAILY THEMES TO REGULAR ASSIGNMENTS?

One said "No," one "Sometimes," the others "Yes." Here are some of the most typical replies:

I prefer daily themes because they lend a bigger scope for individuality. I prefer them, not because they are easier for me, but because I need the practice. Yes, although sometimes the assignments would have been simpler. Yes, because it is so different from what I had in high school-of course this is much more work. Yes, because I derive more benefit by doing daily what the course

is supposed to teach us. Yes-I find out my mistakes sooner, and can profit by my errors. Sometimes at times it was most interesting; at others, a source of worry. Yes-if we put the facts into practice daily, we remember them; otherwise they are a jumble.

2. HAS IT BEEN DIFFICULT TO FIND SOMETHING TO WRITE ABOUT?

Most of the students had the same experience: subjects were everywhere the first two weeks; then they struggled for a week; and after that, most of them were never at a loss: At times it was difficult, yes; I would think of so many subjects, only to realize that I was not capable of writing on them. Recently, it has been difficult to find subjects that vary; I tried to use my imagination, but apparently stretched it too far, for the themes became vague. If I don't give up, and try harder, perhaps it will be easier soon. At first it was simple; now I rack my brains for half an hour before I can find suitable material. After the holidays, however, I'll be able to write two a day, if necessary. For a day in every three weeks or so I'd have difficulty. Seldom hard to find a subject, but hard to find a good one.

3. HAVE THE DAILY THEMES BORED YOU?

The verdict here was that when they had something to write about, they enjoyed the writing:

I've not been bored at any time, but I've often taken a big chance on inspiration rather than perspiration, and the result was usually a D. Occasionally I enjoyed reading and correcting my themes, but I was usually peeved to think I would make such foolish mistakes; I did enjoy writing them, though. The week I could find no subjects it became very much of a bore; the rest of the time it was the most enjoyable subject I had to prepare. I have derived a great deal of pleasure from trying to put all of the little thoughts and sights that I would not have otherwise noticed, into writing. I enjoyed it because I could write about the small things I really felt, rather than things that

didn't interest me. Enjoyment did come, especially when I wrote a good theme, and received a good grade. There has been a great deal of enjoyment, far in excess of the boredom. At times the thought of writing that daily theme gave me nightmares and indigestion; sometimes it was fun, and sometimes agony, but the day I spent writing Memories was wonderful. A completed theme is a mental treat; at no time have I lacked enjoyment when well into the composition of a theme.

4. HAS YOUR FACILITY FOR WRITING INCREASED?

It was easier for most of them to write, it seemed, after the daily practice. My own records showed that in most cases, the marks went gradually upward:

Yes, I can organize material better now. Punctuation is not as difficult as it used to be, and I am learning to avoid careless mistakes. There is still room for an unlimited amount of improvement, but I do feel that my spelling and punctuation have improved. My way of expressing my thoughts, my choice of words and sentence-structure are much better now. It has been easier for me to write, but what I have written has not yet reached my standard.

5. WOULD YOU STOP NOW IF YOU COULD?

One would have; two "wouldn't mind for a short time"; and the rest wanted to go on. 6. SHOULD YOU LIKE TO CONTINUE THE PLAN NEXT SEMESTER?

There was one who replied, "I don't know"; two said, "No," and the rest said "Yes."

7. HAVE THE CLASS DISCUSSIONS BEEN ADEQUATE?

With one exception, the group felt that they had:

After a discussion on argument, I wrote a theme on argument, and got B on it. It is surprising how much one can get out of the class discussions and lectures when one really listens, and knows it is his only chance.

Yes, these class discussions were more detailed than in any of my other classes. The lectures and discussions covered more material than ever before; perhaps it just seems that way because I felt I had to listen and absorb what was being said.

8. WHAT HAVE YOU GAINED OR LOST?

My vocabulary has been increased; it used to be abominable. I observe many things now that I never saw before. I understand better the mechanics of writing, how to organize material, and all that. I have gained the ability to do a certain amount of creative thinking, and to crowd a lot of thought into a little time and space. I have learned to work with greater precision. I've gained one thing which means much-the desire to write, and write, and then to write some more. I've gained an idea of what I need-namely, practice, and I'm getting that. I can spell better now. I've gained the power to see things I missed before things that make life more interesting. I've acquired a knowledge of a good many things I've always wanted to look up, and never had time to bother with.

9. HAVE YOU SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF THE SYSTEM?

There were few suggestions. One or two made them:

I'd like even more comments on returned themes. I'd like to write one kind

of theme each week. I'd like the requirement to be five themes a week instead of one a day. I'd rather have the themes due at three o'clock.

IO. WHAT IS YOUR OPINION OF THE PRESENT METHOD OF REQUIRING ALL THEMES GRADED BELOW C TO BE REWRITTEN? It serves as more practice. It has been an incentive to better writing, as far as I'm concerned. I don't think any themes should be rewritten. It's o.k.-shows that nothing can be gained from writing a theme carelessly and in a hurry. If we didn't have to rewrite, we might not try so hard the first time. One sees his mistakes and remembers to correct them the next time.

One gleans from these comments information that is helpful for all themecorrecting, daily or otherwise. Quite important to the student seems to be the privilege of choosing his own theme-material. He likes to have his themes returned very soon after he hands them in, and is much more interested in correcting them under such circumstances.

The most evident result, and the one" that pleased both students and me most, was the change in their attitude toward writing. On the whole, most of them dreaded themes before. The daily theme practice helped them to realize the truth of Bors' comment to Bromel in Erskine's GALAHAD "One may be convinced and still be wrong."