less successfully, that all plants conform to a single type in their structure; that in their development, from stage to stage, they only repeat the universal type, - embodying it now imperfectly, and now in forms which approach perfection. This type he declared to be the leaf; and he proved, by a valid process, that even fruits and flowers are but modified leaves. Since, however, many plants lack what may be properly termed a leaf, some more general type was sought. The result was the discovery of the cell, which is common to animals and plants, thus laying the basis of absolute unity in nature. To other men, advocates of the so-called development theory, belongs the credit of working out this discovery to its wonderful results. Yet they all name Goethe as the master who gave them the right clew to nature, and an impulse which still carries them forward. In optics Goethe was not so successful. We have seen that he did not belong to the school of inductive philosophy. The unity of nature was with him a transcendental truth. Possibly this was the secret of his opposition to the Newtonian doctrine that light is a compound substance. Look-· ing for unity in all things, he assumed that light must be a simple substance; and he proclaimed this theory, unfortunately, when he had happened to observe a single fact which seemed to him to confirm it. The theory was a mistake. That doctrine of nature which had led him aright in the other cases, here betrayed him into error. Yet he fought for his theory as long as he lived. Neither argument nor ridicule could move him. He experimented, and argued, and wrote, with a constantly growing zeal. He contended that his doctrine of light outweighed in In optics. value all the other achievements of his life. The fact that certain a-priori thinkers, Hegel among them, inclined to believe his theory, enabled him to bear the derision of scientific men far and near. Works in which he shows to advantage. Shorter poems. In one class of his purely literary works, too, Goethe's pantheism does not greatly shock our moral convictions. I allude to those which are on classic subjects, simply reviving the spirit of antiquity, or which deal chiefly with the nobler tendencies of human nature. In all his works, even those which deify wickedness, we may choose out passages admirable for their moral tone; but this lofty spirit is characteristic of some, as it is not of others. His shorter poems, if we sift out a class, give charming utterance to almost everything bright or good in human life. He has written lyrics which might serve as vehicles of the purest emotion. In their simplicity and truth to nature, they are equal to the finest models of the ancients. His Iphigenia in Tauris, also, is worthy of his great powers. He transports himself into the serene air of antiquity, lives amid its scenes, breathes its loftiest spirit. Sophocles himself could not speak more nobly of the pure but fated daughter of AgamemThe guile of the ancient Greek is allowed to come out, in her dealing with the Taurian king; and here Goethe shows more sympathy with her fault than we could wish. But in everything essential to womanhood, as judged by the standard of those days, in filial devotion, patriotism, maidenly innocence, and the sacrificial spirit, he makes her fill out the highest ideal. Nor Iphigenia in Tauris. Egmont. non. can it be denied that there are passages in the play of Egmont which are not only worthy even of a Shakespeare's genius, but in which the sharpest morality can see little to condemn. It is true that he violently distorts history, and shows a fiercely democratic scorn for social distinctions; yet we almost forget this, together with the doctrine of fatalism running through the play, while we read the address to sleep, put into the mouth of the imprisoned Egmont; and as Clara, who had hoped to be his bride, says to the cowering Netherlanders, "I have neither arms, nor the strength of a man; but I have that which ye all lack-courage and contempt of danger. O that my breath could kindle your souls! That, pressing you to this bosom, I could arouse and animate you ! Come, I will march in your midst. As a waving banner, though weaponless, leads on a gallant army of warriors, so shall my spirit hover, like a flame, over your ranks, while love and courage shall unite the dispersed and wavering multitude into a terrible host." One other specimen of this better class of Goethe's writings I must not fail to the beautiful poem of Hermann and Dorothea. Nothing sweeter can be found in the whole range of idyllic or epic poetry. The description of the train of exiles, of the meeting of the lovers, of the old landlord and his wife, of the village pastor and doctor, of the garden, the vineyard, the encampment, the harnessing of the horses, the finding of Dorothea, her meeting with Hermann at the well, their walk homeward in the evening, and the betrothal, cannot be surpassed for vivid and charming naturalness. Yet the whole story covers but a single day, too short a time, we feel, for an entirely new love thus to ripen; and the noble Dorothea name ―― Hermann and Doro thea. seems to forget too easily her former lover, but lately slain in battle, whose golden pledge she still wears on her finger. Wherein his theory works evil. Faust. From this class of works, in which the law of spontaneity yields so little to offend us, we turn to another. Here the influence of pantheism, glorifying whatever it touches, fails to satisfy our moral convictions. The spontaneity which charmed us where all the tendencies were right, begins to repel us where they are wrong. We hold that man has a lower nature, which is to be repressed, as well as a higher nature, which may act itself out freely. It is the consistency of Goethe, as a pantheist, that offends us. He dares to be true to his theory, — to show how it deifies the bad no less than the. good. His Faust has been mentioned. Could anything show more clearly what bitter fruit pantheism may be made to yield, than that wonderful poem? The longing of man to gratify even his lowest passions is sacred, and cannot be resisted; yet the gratification is all the time plunging him into deeper wretchedness. The only escape from this miserable fate which Goethe can suggest, is "renunciation," not the surrender of one's self to the holy and divine law of Christ, but to this same foredoomed and tormenting activity. How indiscriminate pantheism is in dealing with right and wrong, may be seen in our author's first famous production, Goetz von Berlichingen. Here the law of spontaneity is seen at work in political relations. The personality of the hero, and not public justice, is made the basis of action. He finds the state in his own impulses, and he dares to obey this inward Goetz von Berlichingen. authority, regardless of external standards. Goetz is the ideal of a predatory baron of medieval times. He dwells in his own castle, surrounded by his retainers, in German wilds. To the Emperor Maximilian he swears allegiance; yet no one but himself is to say what that allegiance requires of him. He often shows it by trampling on the imperial commands. With his fellow-barons he is perpetually at war. Goethe paints him as a champion of the weak; but in defending some he wantonly wrongs others, as the following case will show: A poor tailor owes two hundred florins, which he is unable to pay. He applies to Goetz for help. The sympathies of the baron are touched, and, lacking the money himself, he waylays and robs at couple of merchants, and out of the booty the tailor's wants are supplied. Thus is an impulse of generosity made to outweigh justice. The deed goes with the flighty purpose, for the law of duty is within. Not established principles, but that subjective law is the guide, and it may modify outward standards, or trample on them, as to itself seems good. Many natural traits in Goetz are noble. He values his reputation for honor among those who are of his own class. His word once given is sacred. He hesitates to break his parole even with a treacherous foe, and at the risk of his life. Viewed in the light of his own personality, and of his generosity to those whom he befriends, his conduct is admirable; but as judged by conscience, in view of the rights of society, only the verdict of strong disapproval can be given. The theory of morals which Goethe thus favors is ably of morals. refuted by Müller, where he says, "An action which contradicts the moral law is not justified by the mere False theory |