system. It will be remembered that one of the clauses of the Ordinance of 1787 declared that "schools and the means of education should be forever encouraged” (p. 65). In conformity with the spirit of the ordinance, whenever a new State was admitted, Congress, which had control of public lands, set aside section No. 16 in every township1as belonging to the public schools. Since 1848 whenever a new State has been admitted section No. 36 has also been dedicated to educational purposes. These lands have been given to the State legislatures for the use of the schools, and when they have been sold to private purchasers the proceeds have been invested. The interest accruing from the investments is distributed among the schools annually.

Common Schools, High Schools, Universities and Normal Schools. The State first provides for a system of common schools, in which the fundamental branches may be taught. The curriculum of these schools includes reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography and history. Above the common schools almost every State supports a system of high schools, in which pupils may receive instruction in the natural sciences, in literature, history and civics, in the higher mathematics, and in the ancient and modern languages. To crown its educational system the State frequently maintains a university which its youth may attend without charges for tuition. To provide a supply of competent teachers for its common schools the State usually supports one or more normal schools.

The Educational Activities of the Federal Government. Under its power to provide for an efficient army and navy

Each

7

6 5 4 3 2 1 8 9 10 11 12 18 17 16 15 14 13 19 20 21 22 23 24 30 29 28 27 26 25 31 32 33 34 35 36

A township in the West usually consists of a tract of land 6 miles square. square mile is a section. There are, therefore, in a township 36 sections. These are numbered as indicated in the accompanying figure.

the federal government supports and controls two great training-schools, the Military Academy at West Point and the Naval Academy at Annapolis.1

Each congressional district in the United States (also each Territory and the District of Columbia), is entitled to send one cadet to the Military Academy. In addition to these, each State is entitled to two cadets at large and the United States, forty cadets at large. The appointment of a cadet from a congressional district is made upon the recommendation of the congressman from the district; cadets from the State at large are recommended by the senators of the State, and those from the United States at large are appointed by the President. The midshipmen at the Naval Academy are apportioned and appointed in the same way as the cadets, except that the United States has only five naval cadets at large.

Candidates for both these schools must be physically sound and of robust condition. Candidates for the Military Academy must not be under 17 nor over 21 years of age and must undergo an examination in the common branches, algebra through quadratic equations, physical geography, the outlines of general history and physiology and hygiene. The pay of a military cadet is $709.50 a year. Candidates for the Naval Academy must not be under 16 nor over 20 years of age and must undergo an examination similar to that set for applicants for entrance to the Military Academy. The pay of a naval cadet is $600 a year. The course of the military cadet is four years; that of naval cadets six years.

We have seen how great has been the liberality of the federal government in granting lands to the common schools. It has been equally generous in its encouragement of higher education in the new States. It is estimated that more than twenty million acres of the federal public lands have been devoted to the support of colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. Congress appropriates annually the sum of twenty-five thousand dollars to each State (or Territory) for the benefit of an agricultural college.

The chief educational officer of the federal government is the Commissioner of Education, who has charge of the Bureau of Education, a

1

In addition to these schools the federal government supports and controls certain Indian schools. It also maintains a system of elementary schools in our insular possessions.

subdivision of the Department of the Interior. Owing to the complete separation of the State and federal governments in respect to education, the duties of this national officer are confined to the collection of educational statistics and to the publication of these and other matters of interest to school people. This bureau has charge of public education in Alaska.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. To what extent is education a function of government?

How do

2. What can be said of the importance of education in a democracy? Trace the growth of popular education in the United States. 3. Where is the authority for public education located? State constitutions usually treat the subject of education? 4. What is the attitude of the legislature toward the management of the schools? To what extent does the legislature control the schools? 5. What is meant by the school district? What are the powers of the officers of the district?

6. Name the several supervising officers of a school system. When does the superintendent really control in school affairs?

7. From what source is the greater part of school revenues derived? Explain the State school tax. Give an account of the revenues derived from the sale of public lands.

8. Describe each of the several grades of schools supported by the State.

9. Give an account of the educational activities of the federal government. What are the duties of the United States Commissioner of Education?

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

1. Does the constitution of this State provide for free schools? Does it specify in reference to taxation for the support of schools? in reference to the length of the school term? in reference to the subjects to be taught? in reference to the age of children who may attend? 2. Are children in this State compelled by law to attend school? If so, state whether the law is effective or not. If there is no compulsory law state the reasons for and against the enactment of such a law.

3. Is a State school tax levied in this State? If so, how much revenue does it yield? How much per pupil is expended on education in this State? Compare this with the amount expended in adjoining States.

4. What is the governing body of this school district called? How is it chosen? What are the names of its members? Make out a list of its powers.

5. Bound this school district. How many pupils are within it? How much money is expended for education within this district? How much

is this per pupil? Is this above or below the average in this State? Do the people of the district elect the school officers? Do they contribute the greater part of the taxes which go to the support of the schools?

6. What does the school do for you as an individual? What does it do for society? What does it do for government?

7. Make out a list of the duties which pupils owe to a school; a list of the duties which the teacher owes to the school; a list of the duties which the school officers owe to the school.

8. (In some schools the faculty makes the rules, decides who has broken a rule and punishes the offender. Government in these schools resembles a despotism. In other schools the students organize as a commonwealth, electing from their number (1) a council which makes the rules, (2) a court which decides when a pupil has violated a rule, and (3) a governor who executes the order of the court. In these schools government resembles a democracy.) Draw up a constitution for the government of a school by its students, providing for the three departments, the election of officers and the distribution of powers. Should the terms of the student officers be for short or for long periods? What rules would be wise for the council to make in reference to tardiness? to whispering? to absence? to truancy? to cheating? to rudeness?

9. What advantages does a school derive from governing itself? 10. Does government in the school prepare for citizenship outside of the school?

Topics for Special Work.-The Education for a Democracy: 4, 379393. State Supervision of Schools: 18, 215-223. Civic Education: 17, 97-117.

XLVII

CORPORATIONS

Introductory. We have already learned what a corporation is and what are the characteristics of a corporation (p. 75). We have also learned that corporations are either public or private, and our study of municipalities was a study of the public or political corporation. We shall now study the private corporation.

Corporations Created by State Authority. The charters under which corporations conduct business are nearly always granted by State authority. The Constitution of the United States has no specific provisions in reference to corporations, yet Congress can and does grant charters to corporations organized for carrying on enterprises which come within the range of federal authority. For example, Congress under its power to regulate the currency has granted charters to national banks; under its power to regulate interstate commerce it has granted charters to transcontinental railway companies. As a rule, however, the creation and regulation of corporations are State functions. How important these functions are may be seen in the State constitutions, where the article on corporations sometimes requires as much space as is given to one of the three great departments. "Formerly," says Justice Brewer, "there were two factors, the individual and the State; now there are three, the individual, the State and the corporation."