as first grade and history of education, general history, psychology, English and American literature, chemistry, solid geometry, plane trigonometry, elementary double-entry bookkeeping; general average 85 per cent, minimum on any subject 50; valid during good behavior. First, examination same as second, and physics, algebra, elements of geometry, constitutions of the United States and Texas, elements of mental and moral science; general average 85 per cent, and minimum 50; valid four years, but void if the holder withdraws two years or more from school work; with general average 75, minimum 50, valid two years. Second, examination same as third, and United States history, elementary principles of civil government, physical geography; with general average 75 per cent, minimum 50, valid two years; with general average 85, minimum 50, valid four years. Third, examination common English branches except United States history, Texas history, elementary physiology, and hygiene and the laws of health with special reference to narcotics, school management and methods of teaching; general averago 70 per cent, minimum 50; valid one year, in no case out of the county of issue. A city or town of 500 scholastic population—that is, an independent district with a local tax for education, a system of free schools nine months yearly, and a superintendent-may have a city board of examiners, consisting of the local superintendent and two teachers appointed by him, authorized to issue certificatesvalid in the city, but rendered valid for any other city by due indorsement of local authorities-permanent and temporary, three classes of each: High school, intermediate, primary. Teachers of special branches not in the list required for State certificates need no certificates.

There is provision for making county certificates valid throughout the State through cooperation of the county superintendent, the State superintendent, and the State board of examiners with the county board of examiners, in which case $1 of the fee is forwarded to the State superintendent. The balances of fees, after paying expenses of examination and any deduction for transmission to the State superintendent, are divided among the examiners.

Any certificate may be canceled by the authority issuing it, provided the holder shall have opportunity to be heard, with right of appeal to the State superintendent and to the State board of education.

UTAH, 1896.-The State board of education, consisting of the (elected) State superintendent of public instruction, the presidents of the University of Utah and of the Agricultural College, and two other persons of large experience and eminent professional standing, appointed by the governor, by and with the consent of the senate, issues diplomas of two grades: State high school, State grammar; also State grammar certificates valid in any county, city, town, or school district. The high-school grade State diploma is valid for any department; the grammar grade and the State certificate are valid in grammar and primary departments; diplomas, for life; certificates, for five years. All candidates must be 20 years of age with two years' experience in the State. They are required to show by examination or other evidence high scholarship in common English branches, political and physical geography, physiology, algebra, physics, rhetoric, drawing, plane geometry, botany, English literature, general history, civil government, history and science of education, psychology. The grammar-grade candidates are also tested in nature studies; the high-school grade in solid geometry and any three of the following: French, German, Latin, Greek, trigonometry, zoology, biology, mineralogy.

Normal certificates and normal diplomas issued by the University of Utah subsequent to March 10, 1892, have the validity of State certificates, and the holder after two years' experience in the State is entitled to a State diploma of highschool grade.

Life diplomas issued in other States and shown to be of equal rank to those of

Utah may be given full validity by countersignature by the State superintendent under direction of the State board, after two years' experience in the State.

Any professional diploma or certificate becomes void if the holder allows a space of five years to elapse without following some educational pursuit.

The expense of State examinations is paid out of the State school fund. The State board is required to revoke, for immoral or unprofessional conduct or evident unfitness for teaching, State diplomas and State certificates.

VERMONT, 1893.-The superintendent of education (elected by the general assembly), and the governor appoint one man in each county as examiner of teachers. The superintendent prepares the questions and prescribes rules for examinations.

A graduate from the higher course of a normal school in the State has a diploma valid as a State license for ten years. By concurrent action of the State superintendent and the examiner for the county where the holder last taught, he may receive without examination a certificate valid till revoked by like authority.

A person who has held examiner's certificate of the first grade for ten successive years, and has had in that time two hundred weeks' experience, may be granted a certificate as above.

A certificate of graduation from the lower course of a normal school in the State is a valid State license for five years.

The county examiners issue, upon examination, certificates of three grades: First, experience required, forty weeks; valid five years. Second, experience twelve weeks; valid two years. Third, may be limited to a school; valid for a specified time not exceeding one year; not issued a second time to one of twenty-four weeks' experience.

An examiner may issue certificates, valid in his county, to those holding diplomas of the highest course in normal schools of other States.

Certificates held by teachers continuously employed in union and graded schools are valid while the teachers continue in the same.

A graduate of any college approved by the State superintendent, with twentyfour weeks' experience in public schools of the State, may receive from the examiner of the county where he last taught, without examination, a certificate of the first grade.

Town superintendents may issue permits to teach particular schools, valid one term, not renewable more than three times.

VIRGINIA, 1892.-The State board of education-consisting of the governor, the superintendent of public instruction (elected by the general assembly), and the attorney-general-appoints and removes county and city superintendents, subject to confirmation by the senate.

The superintendent of public instruction issues two grades of State certificates: Life diplomas: Experience required, two years; examination the same as for first-class county certificates, and such other branches as the State superintendent may direct.

Professional: Examination and experience as life diplomas; valid seven years. If the holder of a life diploma ceases for a space of three years to be engaged in active educational work he is liable to reexamination and cancellation of his certificate. The State certificates are valid in every city and every county without further examination.

All certificates are revocable for good cause.

County and city superintendents issue certificates stating the branches upon which the holders have been examined, and of three grades: First, age required, 20 years; experience, ten months; examination same as third, and theory and practice of teaching; valid three years, and, by indorsement of the local superintendent

in any county or city, renewable for a period not exceeding two years. Second, age required, 18 years; examination same as first; valid two years in the city or county where issued. Third, age required, 18 years; examination, common English branches, with physiology and hygiene; valid one year where issued.

In Virginia cities are not parts of counties; their residents pay no county taxes on property lying in the cities, and in their relation to the State cities are like counties, except in particulars specifically stated in individual charters.

WASHINGTON, 1893.-The State board of education, consisting of the (elected) State superintendent of public instruction and four suitable persons, two at least from those teaching in the common schools, appointed by the governor, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, sits as a board of examination, and also prepares a uniform series of questions for county boards of examiners.

The State board issues certificates of two forms, revocable for cause deemed sufficient by the board.

Life diplomas.-Experience required, ten years, one year in the common schools of the State; examination, as for State certificates; valid in any common school. State certificates.-Experience required, twenty-seven months, nine in public schools of the State; examination, same as first-grade county certificates and pedagogy, plane geometry, geology, natural history, civil government, psychology, bookkeeping, composition, English literature, and general history, or file a certified copy of a diploma from some State normal school, or of a State or Territorial certificate from any State or Territory, based on requirements not less than those of Washington; valid five years in any common school; renewable without examination.

A county board of examiners, consisting of the superintendent and two persons holding the highest grade certificate in the county appointed by him, under rules, and only with questions prescribed by the State board, issues certificates of three grades to candidates 17 years of age who have attended a teachers' institute: First, experience required, one school year of nine months; examination, same as third, and natural philosophy, English literature, algebra; valid five years. Second, examination, same as third; valid two years. Third, examination, common English branches, physiology and hygiene, Constitution of the United States, school law and constitution of Washington, theory and art of teaching.

In their discretion, without examination, the board may issue certificates to graduates of the normal department of the State University, of any State normal school, or to holders of State certificates, or life diplomas of any State or Territory. The county superintendent, in certain cases of necessity, issues a temporary certificate, valid till the next regular examination, to a teacher holding an equal certificate from any other county or State, any normal school, or the normal department of the State University.

All certificates are revocable for cause, including neglect to attend the annual county institute.

WEST VIRGINIA, 1893.-A State board of examiners of four competent persons, one from each Congressional district, appointed by the (elected) State superintendent, a person "of literary acquirements and skill and experience in the art of teaching," may issue: First-class certificates, valid twelve years, renewable without examination to those who have taught eight of the twelve years. Second class, examination requirements as for county certificates and at least four other branches determined by the board; issued on application to graduates of the State Normal School and the State University after three years' teaching experience under a No. 1 county certificate.

Teachers who have taught four years under second-class certificates are entitled to receive, without examination, first-class certificates at the expiration of the second class.

All certificates issued by the State board are equivalent to No. 1 county certificates and valid in any district in the State.

Fee, $5. The board of examiners is compensated, but in no case beyond the amount of fees.

Certificates are revocable for cause.

The temperance examination is universally obligatory.

In every county is a board of examiners, composed of the county superintendent and two experienced teachers holding State certificates or No. 1 county certificates, or graduates of reputable schools, appointed by the superintendent and confirmed in a meeting of the presidents of the district boards of education; compensated ($3 per day) from fees of applicants ($1 each), not to exceed the fees.

No applicant is to be examined unless 16 years of age.

No diploma or recommendation from any institution or its officers is tc supersede a careful examination on each branch and the art of teaching, the grade in each to be stated.

First-grade certificates.-Examination upon lower grade branches, with general history and bookkeeping; general average, 90 per cent; minimum in any branch, 75; valid four years, renewable once, in discretion of board, provided the holder has taught two years on the certificate.

Second grade.-Examination upon branches required to be taught in the primary free schools, with civil government and the theory and art of teaching; general average, 80 per cent; minimum, 70; valid two years; reissued only on reexamination.

Third grade.-Examination subjects as above; general average, 70 per cent; minimum, 60; valid one year; reissued only on examination, and not more than twice.

Failure to attend the county teachers' institute, unless excused by law, is a cause for revoking a certificate.

WISCONSIN, 1893.-The (elected) State superintendent appoints annually a board of three competent persons to examine candidates for State certificates, and prescribes regulations for examination. Upon report of the board that a candidate has the qualifications of a first-grade county certificate, and has passed in mental philosophy, English literature, and such other branches as may have been prescribed, the superintendent issues an unlimited State certificate, valid, without further examination, in any public school of the State.

Upon a kindred report on the above subjects through English literature, a limited certificate is issued, valid, as above, for five years.

No fee is charged.

The normal school board diplomas, granted in testimony of scholarship and ability to teach, and indorsed by the State superintendent, after one year's experience in the schools of the State; diplomas of graduates of the State University or of any incorporated institution in the State with courses of study equivalent to the corresponding courses in the university, similarly indorsed after sixteen months' like experience; diplomas of graduates of the State University, with indorsement showing completion of the full course of pedagogy, similarly indorsed, after eight months' like experience-have the force of unlimited State certificates. A normal certificate of completion of the elementary course and qualifications to teach, countersigned by the State superintendent, has the force of a limited State certificate.

The State certificates are subject to be annulled by the State superintendent after the accused have written copies of charges and opportunity for defense.

The county superintendent issues certificates of three grades: First, examination same as second, and higher algebra, natural philosophy, geometry; valid four years, but may be limited to one year. Second, examination same as third, and gram

matical analysis, physical geography, elementary algebra; valid two years. Third, examination, common English branches, constitutions of the United States and Wisconsin, temperance, theory and art of teaching; valid not more than one year, and may be restricted to a town or a school.

Graduates of free high schools with diplomas showing their standing in each branch of study, a first-class certificate from the superintendent of the county of residence or graduation, and one year's experience may have four years' validity given to the certificate in any county by the countersignature of the superintendent thereof.

The county superintendent may annul certificates after at least ten days' written notice, including statement of charges and opportunity for defense.

WYOMING, 1895.-The (elected) superintendent of public instruction has power to grant certificates of qualification to teachers of proper learning and ability to teach in any public school and to regulate the grade of county certificates.

County superintendents are authorized to grant certificates to persons of the requisite ability and qualifications for two years or during their terms of office, or may renew a certificate previously given without reexamination.

Certain peculiarities are recapitulated below without comment on their value: A careful reading will show where the temperance examination is obligatory. The effect of cigarettes is specifically a subject of examination in Tennessee, and that of tobacco in Texas.

Licenses are invalid after an interval not spent in school work:

In the District of Columbia, after an interval of one year out of service of the board, unless under leave of absence.

In Indiana, a permanent county certificate after failing to teach a full school year in any year.

In Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, and Virginia, life license after three years. In Kentucky, life license after two years.

In Texas, permanent county certificates after three years; first grade, after two years.

In Utah, life license after five years.

In Arkansas belief in a Supreme Being is a prerequisite for a license.

In Arkansas, one of the States where all rural land titles are in terms of the national survey, ability to read the land descriptions according to that survey is a subject of examination, and a teacher failing to teach the same is under penalty of revocation of his license.

Failure to teach the temperance lessons is specifically punishable:

In Colorado by removal from office of any officer or teacher under whose jurisdiction it occurs.

In Iowa by revocation of the license of the teacher and debarment from teaching for one year.

In North Dakota and in Ohio by revocation of license.

In Pennsylvania any school committee or board of control for any institution wholly or in part maintained by public funds forfeits its share of appropriations from the Commonwealth.

In New Hampshire primary schools are exempt from the obligatory temperance lessons.

The town committee in Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire satisfies itself of the qualifications of teachers, accepting, in its option, State certificates or normal diplomas in lieu of examination.