antipathy to quinine and a preference for arsenic as a remedy for certain fevers is a marked and well-known peculiarity of the German school of medicine, in respect to which its opinions are in sharp disagreement with those of physicians in some other countries, notably the United States.

Another fact noticed and mentioned by Professor Koch during his studies in Africa and India is that women withstand exposure to malarial climates far better than men. During the appalling mortality on the Gold Coast within the past four years, says the report, there was hardly a death among the women living out there, while every kind of man was dying-men new to the Tropics, men born in them, men who had been accustomed to them for years, even men who had battled with the ravages of West Africa for upward of ten years.

The attempt to explain this anomaly by the fact that men are, as a rule, more exposed to the hot sun of day and the miasma of night, failed in presence of the fact that the death rate was highest among officials, merchants, and employees who work in offices, banks, and warehouses, where no exposure to weather is involved and where medical attendance, food, and all conditions of living are the best obtainable in that country. The fact that black-water fever, so deadly to male Europeans, almost never attacked women, and that no physician has yet offered any reasonably conclusive explanation of such discrimination, illustrates how far medical science is yet from a full understanding of malarial disease and how long and difficult a road is yet to be traversed before the risks incurred by northern civilization in the effort to reclaim and civilize the Tropics will be reduced, through exact knowledge and scientific practice, to a minimum.

The subject is certainly so important as to invest with world-wide interest the efforts that Germany is now making under the lead of her foremost bacteriologist to reach a clear understanding of, and more potent mastery over, the scourge which now makes desert some of the fairest and most fertile portions of the earth. FRANK H. MASON, Consul-General.

FRANKFORT, October 11, 1898.

PRACTICE OF PROFESSIONS IN JAPAN.

Consul-General Gowey sends from Yokohama, under date of December 21, 1898, a summary translation of the laws of Japan relative to the practice of the professions of law, veterinary surgery, medicine, and dentistry, together with a list of schools devoted to these subjects.

LAWYERS.

Anyone who desires to practice law must pass the examination, which is to be held once a year, and must obtain the permission of the minister of state for justice, and then he can practice in the supreme court and other courts. A minor, a bankrupt who has not completed the obligation of compensation, a person convicted of a theft or fraud, an official, or a public or private employee, is debarred from obtaining such permission. A practitioner must join a guild of lawyers where he chooses to locate, and observe its rules and regulations. The registration fee is 20 yen ($9.96) and the sum of 10 yen ($1.98) is to be paid as a fee at the time of examination. Violation of the provisions to be observed by the members of the bar is punishable by censure, by suspension of avocation for not more than one year, or by a fine of not more than 100 yen ($49.80, or by "jornei," in which case the lawyer's name is expunged from the register, and he is not entitled to continue the profession until three years have elapsed, or is disbarred for life, according to the gravity of his offense. In the case of a graduate of the law college of the Imperial University he is exempted from passing the examination, but is required only to apply for a license for practicing.

VETERINARY SURGEONS.

This profession can be followed only by one who has obtained license from the minister of state for agriculture and commerce.

The following persons may obtain the license: One who has passed a veterinary examination and holds a certificate; one who holds a diploma of a governmental veterinary school or a certificate that he has passed a special course of the veterinary department of an agricultural college; one who holds a certificate that he has passed a special course of the veterinary department in a public or private school the curriculum of which has had the approval of the minister of state for agriculture and commerce; one who holds a graduation certificate of a governmental or public veterinary school in a foreign country.

A license fee of 1 yen (49.8 cents) must be paid. A renewal of license on account of loss can be made upon the payment of 50 sen (24 cents).

A suspension of business for not less than five days and not more than fifty days, or entire prohibition of occupation, may be adjudged, if there be any offense with regard to veterinary practice or improper conduct, by the minister of state for agriculture and commerce, according to the circumstances of the case. This prohibition may be rescinded after three years have elapsed if deemed advisable, in which case the practitioner must apply for a fresh license.

A fine of not less than 5 yen ($2.49) nor more than 50 yen ($24.90) will be imposed upon one who has practiced veterinary medicine or surgery without obtaining a license. A fine of not less than 2 yen (98 cents) nor more than 25 yen ($12.25) will be imposed upon one who follows the business while he is under suspension.

A penalty of not less than 1 yen nor more than 1.95 yen will be imposed upon a veterinary surgeon who shall have refused to comply with the request of others for professional services without proper reasons therefor.

The minister of state for agriculture and commerce may issue a provisional license to a person who has none of the qualifications enumerated above, but whose antecedents merit such favor, by limiting the area of operation and the period of practice, upon the recommendation of the chief of the Hokkaido Cleo or by a governor of any prefecture where veterinary surgeons are scarce.

MEDICINE.

Any person who desires to practice medicine must pass an examination before a committee annually appointed by the minister of state for home affairs. The fee for a license to practice is 20 yen ($9.96). The alumni of the medical college of the Tokyo Imperial University and of the medical departments of the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth high schools and one of the medical schools of Osaka, Kioto, and Aichi are entitled to practice without passing the examination, the only requirement being to apply for and obtain license.

A physician who shall have committed an offense, or one who has been guilty of improper conduct in a professional way, may be suspended or prohibited from practice by the minister of state for home affairs after full inquiry has been made by the central sanitary board.

DENTISTRY.

After study of at least two years, one who desires to practice dentistry can apply for examination, which is held annually. This must be passed before he can procure a license, the fee therefor being 8 yen ($3.98).

The penalty clause that applies to physicians is also enforced in the case of dentists.

PHARMACY.

One must be over 20 years of age, pass the examination, and obtain license from the minister of state for home affairs before he can practice pharmacy. The

license fee for practicing is 3 yen ($1.49). He can prepare medicine only in accordance with a prescription of a physician, in which the name of the patient, age, name of medicine, quantity, directions for use, quantity to be taken by the patient, date, and name of the physician are described. A prescription for a poisonous or astringent medicine must be signed by a druggist and be kept for a period of ten years. One who practices the business of pharmacist without obtaining governmental sanction will be punished by a fine of not less than 10 yen ($4.98) nor more than 100 yen. Law and medical schools.

CHAPTER XXXV.

LEGAL PROVISIONS OF THE VARIOUS STATES RELATING TO TEACHERS' EXAMINATIONS AND CERTIFICATES.1

[The digest of the laws regulating the administration, character, and finances of the public-school systems of the States of the Union, Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1893-94, pp. 1063-1300, covers legislation as to teachers to that year, though not in a separate form.]

In the early history of public education in this country there were general requirements for moral and scholarly qualities in those employed to teach, but the tests of such qualities were left almost wholly to authorities immediately interested in the school to be taught. In New England, where the town formed the administrative unit for local affairs, the selectmen or the school committees were to be satisfied of the fitness of the teacher. In the advance of public education schools were established for the training of teachers, the initiation of which is claimed to have been in Massachusetts in 1839. The conditions as to satisfying the local authorities have not essentially changed in Massachusetts since professional schools were opened, though such authorities may accept the diplomas of normal schools as satisfactory evidence of qualification if they choose. Further details occur under Massachusetts, on a later page.

In New York as early as 1843 the State superintendent of public instruction was authorized to issue certificates, valid till revoked, as evidence that the holders were well qualified to teach any common school in the State. These certificates at first appear to have been issued "on such evidence as may be satisfactory to him."2 In later years it became lawful and customary to issue such certificates upon the recommendation of local superintendents and school commissioners. A normal school was opened at Albany December 18, 1844. In 1849 it was enacted that a diploma from the State normal school entitled the possessor to be deemed a qualified teacher anywhere in the State. +

4

5

Here might be a claim for something like a recognition of a professional standing for a teacher, but the exemption from local examination was not secured by the possession of a State certificate. This decision affects the precedence which might have been claimed for New York in the recognition of teaching as a profession. The present professional standing in that State appears on a later page under New York.

The reciprocal influence of the United States and Canada has been considerable, and especially between the English-speaking province of Upper Canada, now called Ontario, and the adjacent portions of the United States. Upper Canada in 1844 took a step resulting in the establishment of a normal school in 1846, and an eclectic school system in 1850, avowedly modeled in its machinery or law from New York; in the principle of support (free to all and maintained by taxation), adjusted to a local option, from Massachusetts; in text-books, from the national

1 By James H. Blodgett.

3 Consolidated School Law, 1864.

2 Laws of 1843, chap. 133, sec. 10.

4 Code of Public Instruction, 1856, p. 171.

* Decision of State Superintendent Victor M. Rice, 1864, given in Code of Public Instruction, 1868, p. 411.

board of education of Ireland; in normal schools, from Germany. The Province has a land survey similar to that in the States formed from the public demain, and its town municipalities have a resemblance to those of the United States where the town of New England has been modified in connection with the national ́ land survey. The example of Upper Canada had such a direct influence in certain States that a brief outline of the professional standing of teachers in that Province is desirable at this point.

The law of 1850 provided for three grades of certificates from county boards of instruction-the first, upon examination in mensuration, elements of surveying, algebra, geometry, general history, vegetable and animal physiology, school management, and improved modes of teaching, was valid throughout the county till revoked; the second, upon examination in common English branches and some knowledge of school organization and classification of pupils, was valid throughout the township till revoked; the third, upon examination kindred to the second, but less rigid, was valid in the school section, a division of the township corresponding to the school district of some States, for one year. Provision was also made for provincial certificates, as follows:

And be it enacted, That it may, and shall, be lawful for the chief superintendent of schools, on the recommendation of the teachers in the normal school, to give to any teacher of common schools a certificate of qualification, which shall be valid in any part of Upper Canada until revoked according to law, provided, always, that no such certificate shall be given to any person who shall not have been a student in the normal school.'

Certificates issued under the above provision were of three classes, corresponding to those already named for local certificates. The first and second classes were valid till revoked, the third class for one year. The first issue was made June 18, 1853; 16 first class, 29 second class, 27 third class. A similar issue was made at the end of the next half year."

*

In 1857 Hon. Egerton Ryerson, chief superintendent of schools for Upper Canada, wrote: "I may observe that certificates given by me as provided * * are valid throughout Upper Canada, the same as a license of a physician."3

In June, 1854, Pennsylvania had the first election of county superintendents, which was by the township directors. In May, 1857, a general law was passed for the benefit of normal schools.

*

*

The tendency and aim in Pennsylvania is to make teaching an independent and honorable profession. * The normal school act, by the course and direction of the term of study, the probation to which its professional graduates are subjected and its two classes of State certificates, recognizes this object. * The distinction between the acquisition of knowledge and the ability to impart it to others is carefully preserved by requiring not only a theoretical knowledge of the art of teaching and practice in the model school, but two full annual terms of successful teaching in the common schools before the teacher's full certificate or diploma can be obtained.1

At that time county superintendents issued certificates similar to those now used, except that the professional certificate was often permanent without further care on the part of the teacher. The general provisions for two classes of county certificates and two classes of State certificates have been maintained, as may be seen under Pennsylvania on a later page.

A State normal school was opened in Illinois October 5, 1857. At the meeting of the State Teachers' Association in December of the same year the forms of diplomas used in Upper Canada were exhibited and a committee was appointed to report upon professional certificates. The report was presented at the meeting

1 Common-school Act, Upper Canada, 13 and 14 Victoria, chap. 48, sec. 44.

2 Annual Report Chief Superintendent of Schools of Upper Canada for 1852. Appendix F, page 240.

Personal letter cited in Illinois Teacher, March, 1858, page 77.

Report Superintendent of Common Schools of Pennsylvania, 1857, page 21.