see by the smallness of the scar. In this year, two side buds developed to continue the spur the next year.

1892. Gave up its desire to be a fruit spur, and made a strong growth on to 12. For some reason it had a good chance to grow. Perhaps the farmer pruned the

FIG. 22.-A seven-year-old apple twig and its curious history. Half size.

tree and thereby gave the shoot an opportunity; or perhaps he plowed and fertilized the land. In the meantime one of the side buds grew to 3, and the other to 7, and each made a fruit bud at its end.

1893. Shoot grew lustily-on to D. The fruit bud at 3 bore an apple, which probably matured, as shown by the scar 2. Two side buds were formed beneath

this apple to continue the spur next year.

The fruit bud at 7 bloomed, but the apple fell early, as shown by the small scar. Two side buds were formed. The buds upon the main shoot-1 to 12-all remained dormant.

1894. Shoot grew from D to beyond E. Side bud of 2 grew to 4, and made a fruit bud on its end; the other side bud grew on to 5, and there made a fruit bud. Side bud of 7 grew on to 10, and the other one to 8, each ending in a fruit bud. Buds on old shoot-1 to 12-still remained dormant. Some of the buds on the 1893 growth12 to D-remained dormant, but some of them made fruit spurs-14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23.

1895. Shoot grew from beyond E to 28. Flowers were borne at 4 and 5, but at 4 the fruit fell early, for the five or six scars of the flowers can be seen, showing that no one of them developed more strongly than the other; that is, none of the flowers "set." A fairly good fruit was probably borne at 5. At the base of each a bud started to continue the spur next year. Upon the other spur flowers were borne both at 8 and 10. At 10 none of the flowers set fruit, but a side bud developed. At 8 the fruit partially matured, and a side bud was also developed. The buds upon the old stem from 1 to 12 still remained dormant. Some of the spurs on the 1893 growth-12 to D-developed fruit buds for bearing in 1896. Some of the buds on the 1894 growth-D to beyond E-remained dormant, but others developed into small fruit spurs. One of these buds, near the top of the 1894 growth, threw out a long shoot, starting from E, and the bud at 26 also endeavored to make a long branch, but failed.

1896. Main shoot grew from 28 to the end. The side bud below 4 (where the fruit was borne the year before), barely lived, not elongating, as seen above 3. This branch of the spur is becoming weak and will never bear again. The side bud of 5, however, made a fairly good spur, and developed a fruit bud at its end, as seen at 6. The side bud of 10 grew somewhat, making the very short spur 11. This branchlet is also getting weak. The bud of 8, however, developed a strong spur at 9. Both 11 and 9 bear fruit buds, but that on 11 is probably too weak ever to bear fruit again. In fact the entire spurs, from 1 to 6 and 1 to 9, are too weak to be of much account for fruit bearing. This year several of the spurs along the 1893 growth-12 to D-bore flowers. Flowers were borne from two buds on the first one (at 13 and 14), but none of the flowers "set." One of the little apples that died last June still clings to the spur, at 14. A side bud, 15, formed to continue the spur in 1897. Flowers were borne at 16, 20, 21, and 23, but no apples developed. Upon 16 and 20 the flowers died soon after they opened, as seen by the remains of them. Upon 23, one of the flowers set an apple, but the apple soon died. The spurs 17 and 18 are so weak that they have never made fruit buds, and they are now nearly dead. The spurs 19 and 22 have behaved differently. Like the others, they grew in 1894, and would have made terminal fruit buds in 1895, and would have borne fruit in 1896; but the terminal buds were broken off in the fall or winter of 1894, so that two side buds developed in 1895, and each of these developed a fruit bud at its end in 1896 in the spur 19, but only one of them developed such a bud in 22. Upon these spurs, therefore, the bearing year has been changed. Upon the growth of 1894-D to beyond E-only three spurs have developed, Nos. 24, 25, and 26. These started out in 1895, and two of them-25 and 26-have made large, fat buds, which are evidently fruit buds. The shoot at E grew on to EE, and all the buds on its lower two-year-old portion remained dormant. On the 1895 growth-from beyond E to 28-all the buds remained dormant save one, and this one-27-made only a very feeble attempt to grow into a spur.

The buds upon the 1892 growth-1 to 12-are still dormant and waiting for an opportunity to grow.

What an eventful history this apple twig has had! And yet in all the seven years of its life, after having made fifteen efforts to bear fruit, it has not produced

a single good apple! The fault, therefore, does not lie in the shoot. It has done the best it could. The trouble has been that the farmer either did not give the tree enough food to enable it to support the fruits, or he did not prune the tree so as to give the twig light and room, or he allowed apple scab or some other disease to kill the young apples as they were forming. I am wondering, therefore, if, when trees fail to bear, it is not quite as often the fault of the farmer as it is of the trees?

FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS.

No. 4.
LEAFLET

ON NATURE STUDY.

ESPECIALLY ADAPTED TO THE USE OF CHILDREN IN SCHOOLS IN RURAL DISTRICTS.

[Prepared by the faculty of Purdue University.]

THE CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

[By Prof. C. S. PLUMB.]

The purpose of this little leaflet is to aid in training the powers of observation of children by studying the animal life of their daily surroundings at home. Enough suggestions are given to the teacher in this to enable one to discuss several phases of such life with the children, and inspire them with an ambition to become more familiar with the daily needs and welfare of farm animals.

Once upon a time, over a century ago, there lived in England a little boy by the name of Robert Bakewell. He lived with his parents in a stone house and helped take care of the horses, cattle, sheep, and swine on the farm. He showed an unusual interest in all of the live stock, and was with them much of his time. As he grew in years, so his interest in farm animals increased. He was rather a reticent fellow and kept his thoughts to himself. But he was a great thinker and observer. He saw that the people about him had many animals that were unworthy of their keeping. The stock grew slowly, ate much expensive food, were of ill shape, and were not profitable to their owners. And so after giving this matter much thought, Robert Bakewell began the work of improving the farm animals of his locality, in the county of Leicester. Horses, cattle, and sheep he resolved to improve to a higher standard of excellence. His neighbors laughed at him, but he was not diverted from his self-assumed task. For years he worked at his problems, and finally he placed before the admiring world the improved English cart horse, longhorn cattle, and Leicester sheep. Then Bakewell was honored, even beyond the shores of Britain, and in later days he became known as "the father of the improved live-stock husbandry."

Note to the teacher.--You will notice that part of the leaflet is printed leaded, or with the lines far apart, and a part of it not leaded. The teacher should use his discretion in the use of the closely lined matter. In most cases it will be necessary to simplify it to meet the comprehension of the children. The leaded matter may be read to the children or presented orally just as it is. It, however, admits of unlimited amplification and discussion. In presenting it the previous knowledge and experience of the children should be drawn upon so far as possible. It is suggested that this leaflet affords material enough for a great many lessons, and that part of it should be used in the summer and part in the winter.

What led to Bakewell's success?

A natural love for animals. The faculty of observation. An ambition to improve that which he thought was inferior. The use of better methods. Persistency of purpose.

Are not all these qualities found to some degree in you? Do not the boys and girls of the farm, more often than not, love the animals with which they come in con

tact? How can this love be turned to account as a means of education in one direction and animal betterment in another?

Let us see. Robert Bakewell, as one engaged in caring for and improving farm animals, believed in three things:

(1) Stabling or shelter;

(2) Proper feeding and watering; and

(3) Gentle treatment.

Have you ever thought what a highly developed being the improved farın animal of to-day is? Did he not once run wild and independent? Has not the will of man greatly improved the horse, ox, cow, and pig since the days when they roamed wild? Seventy-five years ago the fastest horses could hardly race a mile in three minutes. Do you know what the fastest record is to-day? Where cattle run wild they produce only enough milk to raise their calves on. How much milk has the best cow you have ever heard of given in a year? In some parts of the coun try where the pigs run wild and have no care they are so thin and have such long legs that they call them "razorbacks," and they can almost outrun the fastest dogs. How do the best looking pigs that you see on our farms and at our fairs look, compared with a "razorback?"

Yes, it is true the farm animal of to-day is an artificial one, composed of either nerves, muscle, meat, or wool, and over which man has a wonderful power if he but knew it. Once shelter and care would have been an injury; now are more frequently a necessity. And so you should know the real necessity of giving farm animals the care that humanity and economy make desirable.

Would it not be well to look into the necessity of these things? Suppose we consider some phases of the lives of farm animals that we might give attention to and thereby add to the comfort of dumb beasts, while adding to our own knowledge of life.

Stabling or shelter.-All animals require protection from the changes of weather or other conditions to a greater or less extent. In the severe cold of winter or the heat of summer what do most animals naturally do? Do they seek for shelter? Is it for this reason in part that sheds or barns are erected? How do cattle look as they stand in the cornfields or barnyard on a cold, cloudy day in January, with a strong wind blowing? On the great prairies cattle seek the protection of groves or windbreaks, where other shelter is not provided. In the cooler northern part of the country in winter, as in Indiana, for example, the humane and wise man provides comfortable barns or warm sheds in which his stock may be housed. Is this important? Let us see.

Some years ago the writer conducted an experiment at the Indiana experiment station at Purdue, to see if shelter was desirable for animals in winter. Six cows were used. Three of these were given shelter from all kinds of disagreeable weather, while three were kept out, exposed to all sorts of conditions during the day, the only shelter provided being a small shed open on two sides. This experiment showed several things: First, that the exposed cows produced less milk each day than the sheltered; second, the exposed cows lost in weight, while those given shelter gained; third, the exposed cows ate more food than the sheltered ones; fourth, from the financial side, the sheltered cows showed nearly $13 more to their credit than did the exposed ones.

The animal body is something like the boiler of an engine. The food is the fuel which creates the energy to make the body go. If this body is exposed to severe cold, then more food or fuel is necessary to keep the system up, and so the cost for food is increased.

Another thing should never be lost sight of, and that is that it is cruel to expose animals to intense cold without for hours at a time. Even in summer, when there is no breeze and the heat is excessive, all kinds of farm stock will suffer if they can not secure shelter of some kind from the sun's rays.

Suppose that we make some observations on the subject of shelter. Turn one of the horses or cows out of doors in cold winter weather, and note how it affects the appearance and the appetite. When it is stormy in winter, if possible, compare the condition of wool and skin of a flock of sheep out of doors with those kept in shelter. Ask the man who buys and sells wool what kind of a fleece is

most valuable, the one from sheep running in the rain and snow or the one kept in the dry shed. In summer place some pigs in a field exposed to the sun, where they can get no shelter, and compare their appearance and comfort with those lying in the shade. In warm weather, when flies are biting badly, begin to weigh the milk of four cows morning and night. Now, turn two of these into the pasture and keep two in a darkened stable, and see what is the influence on the milk yield and comfort of the different animals.

Food and feeding.-All true lovers of animals enjoy watching them eat. In the great zoological gardens crowds assemble to see the lions eat and to feed the monkeys peanuts and candy. There is a sense of pleasure in watching our farm animals with hearty appetite eating their grain in the manger. The most successful feeders study the appetites of their stock and enjoy giving changes of diet-and noting the relish shown by the animal in eating of it.

Of the foods fed, horses prefer oats or corn. Cattle and sheep relish both of these, as well as bran and oil meal, while pigs enjoy corn or shorts or middlings best. In fact, a large share of the pigs grown in the United States are fed on corn or its products.

All classes of stock, however, enjoy and need herbage in some form, either dry or green. Horses are usually fed timothy hay and cattle clover and corn fodder, green or dry, while sheep need clover or some kind of fine grass, as, for example, Kentucky blue grass. This last is the best pasture grass we have, though for pigs nothing is better than green clover.

Now that we know what foods are used, how shall the animals be fed? Shall they be fed at any regular hours? Is there a gcod and a bad way to feed? Suppose we say that the best way to feed horses is to give them water first, then some grain, and last, hay. Is that right? Is that the way you do at home? I think horses should be watered before eating. That is so they will not wash their food down before they have ground it up well in the stomach. But suppose you ask a few men you know, who have horses, when they give them water and report on this subject. Cattle are usually fed their grain first, and then the hay, or coarse fodder, or pasture. Horses and cattle must be fed morning, noon, and night, although grain is not usually fed cattle at noon. Much, however, depends upon circumstances, for horses that are hard worked, or cattle that are being fattened or heavily milked, require more nutriment than do others. Sheep and pigs should be fed at morning and night; but if being fattened it is best to feed them three times a day. It is important that all kinds of stock be fed only such an amount as will be entirely eaten, and with a relish, especially the grain. With some coarse hays or clover there always is necessarily some woody material left uneaten.

Here is a good chance to make some observations. What do the live stock you are acquainted with eat? How much is fed them of this or that? At what hours of day are they fed? Do you know how fast they grow? There are sheep and pigs on many farms where simple feeding experiments might be conducted. Let us take two lambs about the same size, and feed one corn meal and the other ground oats, and see which will grow the best. We should have scales, and the lambs should be weighed occasionally, say once a week, and an accurate record kept of the growth, as well as of the amount of food eaten each week. Then, in a few weeks, it will be interesting to report on the gain in weight, how many pounds of grain were eaten, its value, and which cost the most. Will it not be easy to feed the calves the skim milk for a few weeks, weighing or measuring what they drink of it, and then report on the amount of such food a calf needs each day to grow well? Can you not show how much each 100 pounds of skim milk is worth when fed to calves or pigs? Feed them the milk, weighing what you give daily, and keeping a record of the weights of the pigs or calves. How much grain do some cows eat daily that make large amounts of milk? Will such a cow give less milk if she is fed less grain?

Watering. Few people realize how important it is that farm animals should be watered properly. In winter they suffer most, from having to drink from icy pools or troughs, so that if they get enough to satisfy thirst, they are frequently chilled all through. With cold air all about the exterior of the body and ice water