of the same relation as that already mentioned is found herenamely, the first three citations given above are found only in G., and where here in ii. 11, 18" stands

purṇacandrodaye purno vardhate sāgaro yathā,

"As ocean fills when the full moon arises,"

the alternate text, 14, 47a, has

yatha nandati tejasvī sāgaro bhāskarodaye.

"As glorious ocean joys when the sun arises."

It is true that the sea is inaccurately described (as containing lotuses, alligators and frogs), but the last passage, as Professor Jacobi has said, is probably a late interpolation and the former are conventional. Some descriptive verses have been furnished by the author of Das Rāmāyaṇa, as at p. 123 (and preceding):

ambaram sagaram co 'bhau nirviçeşam apaçyata

sampṛktam nabhasă hy ambhaḥ sampṛktaṁ ca nabho‘mbhasă, where the commingling of cloud and sea is rather well described, as before, vi. 4, 120-21, is given the sound of the breaking surges :

bhräntormijāla saṁnādam pralolam iva sägaram,

though less effective is the simile in vs. 118 or G. v. 74, 37 :

urmayaḥ sindhurājasya mahābherya iva 'hatäh,

where the waves beat like cymbals. The following I add chiefly as an illustration of the descriptive style of a poet who followed Vālmīki, G. vi. 14, 25:

(As the sun set and night advanced, pūrṇacandrapradipă ca yāminī samavartata)

sacandragrahanakṣatram nabhodṛeyata sagare dvitiyam iva că 'kāçaṁ sacandragrahatārakam.

The alternate text stops with pradiptă ca kṣapă samativartata, 38, 13.

I have already given examples of the tumult of people compared with the roaring of ocean. Another case, only in G. v. 9, 49, has a verse descriptive of the tumult of a town:

sägaropamanirghoṣāṁ sāgarānilasevitām,

where at least the first half seems to betray some ability in fitting

the word to its object.' But no copy of nature in any epic poetry surpasses the splendid description of the flood of people whose uproar in R. ii. 6, 27 = G. 5, 27, is rendered in the magnificent verse

parvasü 'dirṇavegasya sagarasye 'va niḥsvanaḥ,

where the swell and filling and very hiss of the ocean are reflected in the simile of the high-surging billows.

This brief account of epic descriptions shows that the Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata employ much the same matter in similes and allusions to the ocean; that one text of the Rāmāyaṇa has rather more such matter than the other; but that both texts, taken together, indicate that the water-similes and descriptions of flood-water refer to ocean. It is the general ocean into which empty the Ganges and Indus and all other rivers, as is stated above from one text, and more explicitly in the other, R. vi. 22,

22:

Gangasindhupradhānābhir āpagābhiḥ samāvṛtaḥ

sägaraḥ.

"That ocean which the Ganges and the Indus

And lesser rivers fill."

WASHBURN HOPKINS.

1 Sea-similes of this sort (apparently) occur frequently, but most of them are not very successful. Compare G. vi. 16, 49 ff., a string of them; v. 74, 14; vi. 19, 20; 99, 25, etc.

III. THE GREEK IN CICERO'S EPISTLES.

The use of Greek by Cicero represents two phases of the influence of the Greeks upon the Romans: the natural utilization of a small part of the Greek vocabulary, and the free use of Greek in the social intercourse of the day. When the Romans came in contact with the higher artistic development of the Greeks, they were content to adopt Greek forms of presentation, and thus Roman literature became, so far as it was original, the embodiment of Roman thought fashioned according to Grecian models. Along with the adoption of the forms of presentation came the admission of Greek words to a place in the Roman vocabulary, and the naturalization process was carried on somewhat freely, Saalfeld (Tensaurus Italograecus) giving about eight thousand words borrowed entire, or in which some part is derived from the Greek.

This introduction of Greek terms was not in all respects a loss to the borrower, as it gave to Roman philosophers, physicians and rhetoricians the same technical vocabulary as was used by the Greeks, and enabled them to deal with like objects and like phases of thought in terms common to both languages. Cicero says, Acad. Post. 1, 7, 25 Nos vero, inquit Atticus; quin etiam Graecis licebit utare, cum voles, si te Latina forte deficient. Bene sane facis; sed enitar, ut Latine loquar, nisi in huiusce modi verbis, ut philosophiam, aut rhetoricam aut physicam aut dialecticam appellem, quibus ut aliis multis consuetudo iam utitur pro Latinis. The borrowing, as indicated by Cicero, was not altogether to facilitate discussion of kindred subjects, but also because the Romans felt the deficiencies in their own language. Cicero occasionally speaks of these, e. g. de Fin. 2, 4, 13 et quidem saepe quaerimus verbum Latinum par Graeco, et quod idem valeat; 3, 4, 15 et tamen puto concedi nobis oportere, ut Graeco verbo utamur, si quando minus occurret Latinum, ne hoc ephippiis et acratophoris potius quam proegmenis et apoproegmenis concedatur; quamquam haec quidem praeposita recte et reiecta dicere licebit; 3, 15, 51 cum uteretur in lingua copiosa factis tamen nominibus ac novis, quod nobis in hac inopi lingua non conceditur; quamquam tu hanc copiosiorem etiam soles dicere.

The last view is repeated de Fin. 1, 3, 10 sed ita sentio et saepe disserui, Latinam linguam non modo non inopem, ut vulgo putarent, sed locupletiorem etiam esse quam Graecam. Quando enim nobis, vel dicam aut oratoribus bonis aut poetis, postea quidem quam fuit, quem imitarentur, ullus orationis vel copiosae vel elegantis ornatus defuit? 3, 2, 5 non modo non vinci a Graecis verborum copia, sed in ea etiam superiores. (Cf. Tusc. Disp. 2, 15, 35; 3, 5, 10-11; 3, 10, 23.) However, his views on this question seem to have varied with his moods, for elsewhere he asserts the opposite; e. g. ad Fam. 9, 26, 2, where, after translating a Greek statement, he adds: (Graece hoc melius; tu, si voles, interpretabere).

Munro, Lucretius, vol. II, p. 11, supports Cicero's favorable view of the Latin: "Whatever Greek writer Cicero wishes to explain, he can find adequate Latin terms to express the Greek, even if they are those of Plato or Aristotle... Had Cicero chosen to apply the prolific energy of his intellect to the task, he might have invented and wedded to beautiful language as copious a terminology as was afterwards devised by the efforts of Tertullian and the other fathers, Aquinas and the other schoolmen.” This is in criticism of the passages (1, 136; 830; 3, 260) in which Lucretius bewails the "egestas patrii sermonis"; and the spirit of his lamentations is reflected by others. Livy 27, 11, 5 calls attention to the greater facility of the Greek in the formation of compound words. Vitruvius de Architectura 5, 4, I denies the completeness of the Latin technical vocabulary: Harmonia autem est musica literatura obscura et difficilis, maxime quidem quibus Graecae litterae non sunt notae, quam si volumus explicare, necesse est Graecis verbis uti, quod nonnulla eorum Latinas non habent appellationes. Seneca, Ep. 58, 7, mentions angustias Romanas, and it was the same as late as the time of St. Augustine, who says, C. D. 10, 1: uno verbo significandum, quoniam mihi satis idoneum non occurrit Latinum, Graeco ubi necesse est insinuo quid velim dicere. (Cf. 7, 1; 12, 2.) But such considerations affect chiefly the rhetorical and philosophical works of Cicero, in which there are 277 Greek words, and six in the orations against Verres (Loew, Quaestiones de Graecorum verborum quae in epistulis Ciceronis exstant, fontibus, usu, condicionibus, p. 9). In the Epistles there are a considerable number of Greek words which were afterwards fully naturalized and freely used as Latin words. Only a part of these need be given: alle

goria, apologismus, apotheosis, archetypum, autochthon, authenticus, blasphema, catholicus, character, diaeresis, diarrhoea, dysenteria, emetica, eulogia, exotericus, hypostasis, hypotheca, mysticus, palingenesia, parrhesia, phantasia, problema, sympathia, symposium, syntaxis, technologia, topothesia, zetema, zelotypia.

The Epistles of Cicero illustrate the genial as well as the vain side of his character, and are an index of a certain phase of Roman social intercourse not revealed in other forms of literary presentation. They illustrate Grecian politeness rather than Roman urbanity, as Greek was a recognized part of current society talk. The close intimacy of Cicero with Atticus furnished the ground for its use in the letters which passed between them, while its absence from the epistles most deeply serious indicates that it was considered appropriate for the expression of the lighter veins of thought. Yet the use of Greek quotations was compatible with a most dignified address, as is shown by the epistle to Caesar, ad Fam. 13, 15, crowded with Greek quotations, and closing with the words: genere novo sum litterarum ad te usus, ut intellegeres non vulgarem esse commendationem. In some of the other epistles Greek is used to express conventional compliments, e. g. ad Fam. 2, 8 (to Caelius) ToλITIKάTepov enim te adhuc neminem cognovi; 9, 3, 2 (to Varro) sed quid ego nunc haec ad te, cuius domi nascuntur, yλaû«' eis ’Aðývas; 10, 13, 2 (to Plancus); 11, 25, 2 (to Brutus) non imitor λak@vioμòv tuum, though in the same epistle he has brevitatem secutus sum te magistro. 7, 32 (to Volumnius) is in a tone of polite banter, while in 7, 26 (to Gallus); 14, 7 (to Terentia), and 16, 18 (to Tiro) Greek medical terms are used.

The deliberate judgment of Cicero in regard to the use of language is laid down de Off. 1, 31, 111 sermone eo debemus uti, qui innatus est nobis, ne, ut quidam, Graeca verba inculcantes iure optimo rideamur. The freedom allowable in epistles gave him an opportunity to disregard his own advice, and his vanity, working under the conditions of a friendly, unrestrained correspondence, must be reckoned as one of the reasons for the free use of the Greek. Handling the Greek freely, he toyed with the Latin also, as ad 1, 16, 13' quare, ut opinor, poσopntéov, id quod tu facis, et istos consulatus non flocci facteon, 'So I suppose one must play the philosopher, the thing that you are at, and not hold those consulships worth a straw.'

1 The references to the Epp. ad Att. do not name the collection.