V

EDUCATIONAL REFORM IN GERMANY1

I

During 1918 German newspapers and periodicals have been giving increasing attention to the question of reforms in the educational system of their country.

In the main, attention has been devoted to three chief points. First, the necessity, in view of the great gaps made by the war in the ranks of the intelligent in the most varied occupations, for making every possible attempt to fill up these gaps by the introduction of fresh intelligences. Next, the educational experts appeared on the scene, and we find accounts of various psychological experiments made with a view to ascertaining practicable methods to discover those children whose mental equipment entitled them to special consideration. Lastly, the necessary reforms of the school system, the overhauling of old types, and the establishment of new types, are discust.

The first point had already come into prominence just before the outbreak of war. In June, 1914, a conference, representing 132,000 elementary and secondary teachers, was held at Kiel, when a resolution was past to the effect that the present and future welfare of the state rendered it imperative that the educational resources of the German nation should be made accessible to as many classes as possible, and, within certain limits, to all classes of the German people, as only in this way would the nation be able to satisfy its demands for intellectual energy from the general mass of the people. As a corollary, a demand was made for the establishment of what were termed Uniform Schools (Einheitsschulen) which would form the necessary connect1 From the Educational Supplement to the London Times, September 19 and 26, 1918.

ing link, not furnished by the elementary school, with a higher system of education, and where there would enter no considerations of social position or creed. It was pointed out that every year over 1/4 millions of children leave the German elementary schools on reaching the age of fourteen to take up manual labor of some kind, a certain proportion of whom are undoubtedly fitted for intellectual work, or at least are worthy of a trial proving their capacity for such work.

The supporters of this idea are not in general agreement as to the exact type of school they desire to see established. One section advocates first the continuance of the present elementary basis, only with this difference, that attendance would be compulsory for all children of all ages without regard to the social standing or position of the parents. Others who favor the uniform-school system demand for each primary school a six years' course, to be similarly attended by every child from its sixth to its twelfth year. It is then argued that the teachers in these primary schools should be absolute and final judges as to whether their scholars were worthy of selection for higher education, the decision to be based solely upon the intellectual capacities of the scholar as revealed in his career at the uniform school. By this means only really gifted scholars would find their way to the higher school, while at the same time every child would be educated according to its capacity. Every opportunity would be given for the development of latent or potential talent, without prejudice to the education of the average or mediocre scholar. Apart from the direct gain to the community, it is suggested that the proposed system of uniform schools indicates a line of development for the weakening of class distinctions.

The vast changes brought about, or in progress, as the result of the war have, of course, given considerable emphasis to these proposals. At the same time, opposition and criticism have not been wanting. This criticism was crystallized in a recent article by Professor Gerhard Budde, who, while sympathizing with the ideal, is of the opinion that the

difficulties in the way are insurmountable. He lays stress on the fact that these difficulties are inherent in the general structure of society, and of the different general, mental, and moral spheres of thought and perception of the various social groups in which children grow up before they go to school, and from which they acquire a certain definite moral and intellectual outlook. Thus the children of the better classes have a great initial advantage from the more favorable environment in which they are brought up, as compared with the children of the masses; and a sort of stagnation would ensue if all these children were to be grouped in one school, irrespective of their primary equipment. Again, as the teachers of the uniform school are to give the final verdict on each pupil, it is evident that new difficulties at once arise, for a child's work in the elementary school is no safe criterion of his actual abilities. Some children "blossom" early, others late, and there would thus be a manifest danger in making the future life-careers of the pupils dependent on a verdict of this kind.

Again, even if this verdict could be trusted, it is probable that school-space in the higher institution could only be found for the selected pupils at the expense of turning out the stupid or mediocre children whose social position had already given them entrance there. An incidental danger would arise also from the fact that this method would tend largely to cut off the supply of intelligent manual labor required for various branches of industry. It is extremely probable that the elementary pupils who are transferred to the higher schools will do their utmost to enter one of the professions or the Civil Service, so that their services would be lost to handicrafts, industries, and agriculture. The withdrawal of all the clever children would, too, so reduce the intellectual level of the elementary school as to make it of the least possible value to all concerned. Finally, Professor Budde casts grave doubts on the social effects of the uniform school, which might well, because of the psychological equipment of the child at this period and his consequent tendency to live a life of the senses, increase rather

than diminish social contrasts, because, for instance, envy and pride might easily result from the observation of inequalities, especially in matters of food and clothing, among the children attending the school.

German experts have also been trying to decide the vext question as to how really clever children may be discovered. These psychological experiments have chiefly taken place in Berlin, where several special schools for exceptionally clever children have been established. The change from the communal school to the higher schools naturally makes greater demands upon the children, as may be gathered from the one fact that in both the grammar school (Gymnasium) and the modern school (Realschule) the study of three different new languages must begin in successive years. Hence. it is claimed that only really gifted children will be able to make progress in these schools; and as the customary reports of the teachers in the communal schools were only of service in estimating such details as behavior and industry, two expert psychologists were instructed to hold proficiency tests with a view to selecting children worthy of promotion. Definite problems were set in order to test as completely as possible all the important functions of the intellect, such as memory, powers of concentration, comprehension, decision, intuition, and observation. Each child examined was "placed" in the examiner's list according to the aggregate number of marks obtained in all the tests.

In order to test the ability of a candidate to learn the vocabulary of a foreign language, twelve pairs of syllables were written, two by two, upon the blackboard. When the first syllable of any pair was called out the candidate was required to write down the second. This test was not as successful as the second test, which aimed at estimating ability to combine memory and reasoning power, the criterion here being success in dealing with three logically connected words called out by the examiner. Investigation into the capacity for concentration was made by the relating of a short story to twelve children, who at the same time were set twelve easy arithmetic questions. While listening

to the story they were asked for the answers to the sums, and after a short pause they had to write down all they could remember of the short story.

A further test had for its aim to estimate the degree of the capacity for decision, the problems set including the meaning of a picture and the probable conclusion of a story broken off during its telling. Incidents of various kinds were next related, and questions as to probability and suitability were asked on points arising out of the incidents, e. g.:

A man who had been gambling in lotteries in the hope of winning something at last had neglected his business and ruined his health. When an old man he won the chief prize. What would he feel and do?

In order to analyze the capacity for intuition and observation a picture was first displayed for a short while and then the candidates were called upon to write a description of it. Next, difficult technical models were set going and the results due to their motions were asked for.

In this manner the experts claimed that the whole range of intelligence was systematically investigated on a scientific basis, and those who felt inclined to criticize the employment of experimental psychology were reminded that the tests were not concerned with the question of the individual intellectual equipment of each of the candidates examined, but solely with their suitability for selection to attend a higher school. Teachers in British schools will no doubt be interested to know that after three months' instruction the teachers in the Berlin schools concerned in the tests have concurred with few exceptions in the results arrived at by the examining psychologists.

II

While there appears, as we tried to show last week, to be a general agreement in German educational centres as to the necessity for ensuring that all suitable children should have the opportunity of proceeding to the higher schools, much discussion is going on at present as to the best means