ing, with elongation, with altered dimensions. A remarkable example of the arts of copying lies before the eye of the reader in these pages. 1. They are copies obtained by printing from stereotype plates. 2. Those plates are copies obtained (by casting) from moulds formed of plaster of Paris. 3. The moulds are copies obtained by pouring the plaster, in a liquid state, upon the movable types. 4. The types are copies (by casting) from moulds of copper, called matrices. 5. The lower part of the matrices, bearing the impressions of the letters or characters are copies (by punching) from steel punches, on which the same characters exist in relief. 6. The cavities in these steel punches, as in the middle of the letters a, b, &c., are produced from other steel punches in which those parts are in relief. (For machinery, in political economy, see Labor-saving Machines.)

Machinery, in poetry. (See Poetry.) MACK, Charles, baron von; an Austrian general, born in Franconia, in 1752. On leaving college, his inclination led him to enlist as a private in a regiment of dragoons, and his good conduct soon obtained him the rank of a petty officer. In the war with Turkey, he obtained a captain's commission. His spirit of enterprise procured him the favor of Laudon, who recommended him to the emperor. On the occurrence of war with France, Mack was appointed quarter-master-general of the army of the prince of Coburg, and directed the operations of the campaign of 1793. In 1797, he succeeded the arch-duke Charles in the command of the army of the Rhine. The following year, he was sent to Naples, then invaded by the French; but, being beaten in the field, and suspected of treason by the Neapolitans, he fled to the French camp, and was sent as a prisoner to Dijon. He found means to justify his conduct in the opinion of the emperor, who, in 1804, constituted general Mack commander-inchief in the Tyrol, Dalmatia and Italy. In 1805, Napoleon forced him to retreat beyond the Danube, and to submit to the famous capitulation of Ulm, by which 28,000 of the Austrians became prisoners. Mack was permitted to go to Vienna, where he was tried before a military tribunal, and received the sentence of death as a traitor to his country. His doom, however, was commuted by the emperor for imprisonment; and he was, after a time, released, and died in obscurity, in

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ican judge and revolutionary patriot, was born March 19, 1734, in the county of Chester, Pennsylvania. After an academic and professional course of studies, he was admitted an attorney, at the age of 21, and soon obtained the appointment of deputy attorney-general in the county of Sussex. In 1757, he was admitted to the bar of the supreme court of Pennsylvania, and, in the same year, elected clerk of the house of assembly. In October, 1762, he was elected a member of the assembly for the county of Newcastle, and was annually returned for seventeen successive years, although he resided in Philadelphia for the last six years of that period. Wishing to decline a re-election, he went to Newcastle in 1779, and stated his purpose. A committee then waited upon him to request that he would designate seven persons in whom they might confide as representatives of that county. He was finally obliged to comply with this flattering request, and the gentlemen whom he named were chosen by a large majority. Mr. Mackean was sent to the general congress of the colonies, which assembled at New York in 1765. He, Lynch and Otis formed the committee who framed the address to the British house of commons. In 1765, he was appointed judge of the court of common pleas and of the orphan's court for the county of Newcastle. In November term, 1765, and February term, 1766, he was one of the bench that ordered the officers of the court to proceed in their duties, as usual, on unstamped paper. In 1771, judge Mackean was appointed collector of the port of Newcastle. When measures were adopted to assemble the general congress of 1774, he took an active part in them, and was appointed a delegate from the lower counties in Delaware. September 5, he took his seat in that body, and served in it eight consecutive years and a half, being annually re-elected until February, 1, 1783. He was the only man who was, without intermission, a member during the whole period. He was president of the body in 1781. Though a member of congress till 1783, yet from July, 1777, he held the office and executed the duties of chief-justice of Pennsylvania. He was particularly active and useful in promoting the declaration of independence, which he signed. A few days after that event, he marched, with a battalion, of which he was colonel, to Perth Amboy in New Jersey, to support general Washington, and behaved with gallantry in the dangerous skirmishes which took place

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while he remained with the army. He returned to Delaware to prepare a constitution for that state, which he drew up in the course of a night, and which was unanimously adopted the next day by the house of assembly. In 1777, he acted as president of the state of Delaware. At that period, as he relates, he was hunted like a fox, by the enemy; he was compelled to remove his family five times in a few months, and at length placed them in a little log house, on the banks of the Susquehannah; but they were soon obliged to leave this retreat, on account of the Indians. July 28, 1777, he received the commission of chief-justice of Pennsylvania, which office he discharged 22 years, and gave striking proofs of ability, impartiality and courage. Some of these are related in the Biography of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence. Judge Mackean was a member of the convention of Pennsylvania that ratified the constitution of the U. States, which he supported in a masterly speech. As a delegate to the Pennsylvania convention of 1788, he aided in forming the present constitution of Pennsylvania. In 1799, he was elected governor of that state, as a leader of the democratic, contradistinguished from the federal party. As governor, he had an arduous task to perform, and he was equal to it, but he betrayed the party politician too often, in the course of his administration, which lasted for nine years, the constitutional limit. In 1803, it was proposed to him to become a candidate for the office of vice-president of the U. States; but he declined. In 1808, he retired from public life, in which he had been engaged for fifty years, and died June 24, 1817, in his 84th year. He was one of the fathers of the republic, and in this quality will be honored, aside from the resentments which his proceedings as a party politician engendered.

MACKENZIE, Henry, a novelist and miscellaneous writer, whom sir W. Scott, in the dedication of Waverley, calls the Scottish Addison, was born in Scotland, in 1745, and, after completing his preliminary education, became attorney in the court of exchequer, in Scotland. He had previously resided in London, for professional purposes, and, while there, wrote his first production, the Prince of Tunis, a tragedy, which was favorably received. His passion for elegant literature led him to devote his leisure hours to polite studies, and made him the friend and associate of the most eminent scholars of Edinburgh. In 1771, his Man of Feeling ap

peared, and was followed, a few years after, by the Man of the World, and, at a later period, by Julia de Roubigné. These works are distinguished by sweetness and beauty of style, tenderness and delicacy of imagination, and deep pathos, which rendered them extensively and deservedly popular. A club of literary gentlemen, in Edinburgh, to which Mackenzie belonged, were accustomed to read essays on various subjects, at their meetings, and, at his suggestion, and under his direction, a series of them was published (from 1778), under the title of the Mirror; he afterwards conducted a similar publication, under the title of the Lounger, to both of which he communicated a large portion of the essays. In these, united with his usual grace of style, he displayed a power of wit and humor, in rallying the follies of his age, which we do not discover in his novels. It is worthy of memory that, in his essays in the Lounger, he was the first to bring Burns forward to the public notice. To the royal society of Edinburgh, and to the Highland society, he made many valuable communications, and was the author of the report to the latter on the controversy concerning the poems of Ossian, in which he maintains their authenticity. This report was published separately (1805), and contains much valuable information relative to Gaelic poetry. While thus active in literary pursuits, Mackenzie discharged, for a long time, the laborious duties of controller of taxes for Scotland, and was the delight and ornament of the society which he frequented. He died at a very advanced age, Jan. 14, 1831. (See Scott's Lives of the Novelists.)

MACKENZIE, Sir Alexander; originally a Canadian merchant, engaged in the north-west fur trade. In 1789, he determined to undertake a journey, with the view of penetrating to the coast of the Northern Polar ocean. He set out from fort Chippewyan, June 3, crossed the Slave lake, and descended the river which now bears his name. July 12, his party reached a spot where the river expanded. into a lake, on which they pursued their course till, by the rising of the tide, and the presence of whales, it was obvious that they were near the sea. They were now nearly in the latitude at which Hearne found the Coppermine river to fall into the sea, but about 30° more in longitude to the west. By this journey, Mr. Mackenzie added one more link to the chain of discoveries in the North. He reached fort Chippewyan, on his return,

September 4, having been absent 102 days. In October, 1792, he undertook a still more arduous journey across the continent, to the shore of the North Pacific. He encountered innumerable difficulties, and suffered greatly, before he could accomplish his purpose; but at length, July 12, 1793, he arrived on the coast of the Pacific, near cape Menzies, in latitude 52°. In 1801, having returned to England, he published his Voyage through North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, in 1789 and 1793 (4to.); and, in the following year, he received, as a reward for his exertions, the honor of knighthood.

MACKENZIE'S RIVER; a river of North America. In the first part of its course, it flows N. E. to the Lake of the Hills, under the name of the Unigah, or Peace river; thence to Slave lake, it is called Slave river; it then takes the name of Mackenzie's river, and flows 780 miles N. into the Arctic sea; lon. 130° to 135° W.; lat. 69° 14' N. Its whole course is about 2000 miles. (See preceding article.)

MACKEREL (Scomber). This is a tribe of migratory fishes, which annually visit our coast, and is among the most celebrated of that class, for its numbers, and for the great use made of it in a salted state. The European mackerel (S. scomber) was early known as an article of food, and was held in high esteem by the ancient Romans, as forming the celebrated sarum, a pickle, or sauce, of which they made great use. This was prepared from several different kinds of fishes, but that from the mackerel was deemed by far the best. The mackerel is easily taken, by a variety of baits, and the capture always succeeds best during a gentle breeze of wind, which is hence termed a mackerel breeze by seamen. At such a time, the usual bait is a bit of red cloth, a colored feather, &c. This fish, when alive, possesses great symmetry of form and brilliancy of colors, which are much impaired by death, though not wholly obliterated. It is said, that, in the spring, their eyes are almost covered with a white film, which grows in the winter, and is regularly cast at the beginning of summer, before which they are half blind. There are several species of mackerel on the coast of the U. States, the most common of which the S. vernalis, closely resembles the European species.

MACKINAC. (See Michilimackinac.) MACKINTOSH, sir James, eminent as a jurist, a statesman, and a writer,-equally distinguished for his extensive learning, his large views, and his liberal principles in law, politics and philosophy,-is de

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scended of an ancient Scotch family, and was born in the parish of Dorish, county of Inverness, Scotland, in 1765. After studying at the school of Fortrose, in Ross-shire, he was sent to King's college, Aberdeen, and spent three years at Edinburgh, chiefly in medical studies. He received his medical degree in 1787; but his attention had already been drawn to general literature, history, and moral, political and speculative philosophy, and his inclination soon led him to abandon his profession. In 1789, we find him in London, where he published a pamphlet on the regency question, which, on account of the sudden recovery of the king, attracted little notice. A visit to the continent, at that interesting period, contributed to excite his sympathies for the French, and he published a reply to the celebrated Reflections of Burke, under the title of Vindicia Gallica, or Defence of the French Revolution (1792), a work which laid the foundation of his fame, and acquired for him the friendship both of Fox and his great antagonist. About this time, Mr. Mackintosh entered himself as a student of Lincoln's Inn, was soon called to the bar by that society, and commenced the practice of the law. Having obtained permission, though not without much difficulty, to deliver a course of lectures in the hall of Lincoln's Inn, on the law of nations, he published his Introductory Lecture, under the title of a Discourse on the Law of Nature and Nations. The ability which it displayed obtained him a large audience, including some of the most distinguished men of the country. On the trial of Peltier for a libel against Bonaparte (then first consul of France), in which the prosecution was conducted by Mr. Percival, the attorney-general (afterwards first minister of state), and Mr. Abbot (the present lord Tenterden), the defence was conducted by Mr. Mackintosh, as sole counsel, "in the most brilliant speech," says sir W. Scott, "ever made at bar or in forum," which at once established his reputation as an advocate and an orator. The recordership of Bombay, with the dignity of knighthood, was soon after conferred on him, and, besides the discharge of the duties of his office, the nine years which he spent in India were marked by his exertions in the amelioration of the criminal law, the foundation of the Literary Society in Bombay, and his valuable communications in the Asiatic Register. While sitting on an admiralty cause, he declared that that court was bound to decide by the law of nations,

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and not (as had been maintained by one of the judges in England) by any direction from the king or his ministers. Soon after his return to England, sir James was returned a member of the house of commons, for the county of Nairn, in Scotland (1813), and has since sat for the borough of Knaresborough, in Yorkshire, in the influence of lord Fitzwilliam. When he first entered the house, he did not appear equal to his reputation; but, in the succeeding sessions, he took his stand among the first parliamentary speakers. To an intimate acquaintance with the common and civil law, he adds the rarer character of a generous statesman; and there are few instances in which finer reasoning, or deeper learning in the history of nations, and the influence of human laws upon the feelings, passions and interests of the human race, have been sustained, developed and enforced by a more manly and vigorous eloquence. His greatest efforts were directed to the amendment of the criminal code, which had been undertaken by sir Samuel Romilly, and was taken up as a solemn bequest by his friend and representative. The escape of Napoleon from Elba, the congress of Laybach, the Irish Catholics, the oppression of the Greeks, Scotch juries, the trial of the queen, are a few of the subjects on which he has exerted his eloquence. Sir James was, for some time, lord rector of the university of Scotland. He is also the author of a celebrated review (Edinburgh Rev., vols. 27 and 36) of Stewart's Discourse on the Progress of Metaphysical Science, and of a Discourse on the Progress of Ethical and Political Science, prefixed to the new edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, and published separately (4to., 1830). His History of England is not a detailed narrative of events, but a rapid, yet clear, profound and philosophic view of the state and progress of society, law, government and civilization in England, in which the lessons of experience, the character of men and events, the circumstances which have promoted, retarded, modified the social and political improvement of the English nation, are unfolded and judged with the acuteness of a philosopher and the wisdom of a practical statesman. His style is simple, clear, graceful and elegant, and often rises to eloquence, when the historian traces out the growth of liberty, and the influence of generous institutions. In July 1831, he made an eloquent speech in favor of reform. MACKLIN, Charles, an actor and dramatist of some celebrity, was born in Ireland,

1690, and was employed in Dublin, as a barge-man, until his 21st year, when he went to England, and joined a company of strolling comedians. In 1716, he appeared as an actor in the theatre at Lincoln's-Innfields. It was not, however, until 1741, that he established his fame as an actor, by his admirable performance of Shylock, that being, indeed, the only character in which he stood preeminent. He continued on the stage until 1789, which long interval was marked by the usual vicissitudes of theatrical life, rendered still greater by the temper of the individual. During the last years of his life, his understanding became impaired, and in this state he died, July 11, 1797, at the age of 107. His Man of the World, a comedy, discovers a keen knowledge of life and manners, and exposes meanness, sycophancy, and political servility, with considerable skill. His Love A-la-mode also possesses kindred merit. Macklin was an entertaining companion, although dictatorial, and very irascible.

MACKNIGHT, James, a learned Scottish divine, born in 1721, was educated at Glasgow and Leyden, and, on his return, was ordained minister of Maybole, where he remained 16 years, and composed his Harmony of the Gospels, and his New Translation of the Epistles. In 1763, he published his Truth of the Gospel History. In 1772, he became one of the ministers of Edinburgh. Dr. Macknight employed nearly 30 years in the execution of his last and greatest work, on the apostolical epistles-a New literal Translation from the Greek of all the Apostolical Epistles, with Commentaries and Notes, philological, critical, explanatory and practical (1795, 4 vols., 4to.). He died in 1800.

MACLAURIN, Colin; a celebrated mathematician and philosopher, born in Scotland, in 1698. He studied at Glasgow, where he took the degree of M. A. at the age of 15, and defended a thesis on the Power of Gravitation. In 1717, he obtained the mathematical chair in the Marischal college at Aberdeen, and, two years after, was chosen a fellow of the royal society. In 1725, he was elected professor of mathematics at Edinburgh, where his lectures contributed much to raise the character of that university as a school of science. A controversy with bishop Berkeley led to the publication of Maclaurin's great work, his Treatise on Fluxions (Edinburgh, 1742, 2 vols., 4to.). He died June 14, 1746. He was the author of a Treatise on Algebra; an Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Dis

coveries; papers in the Transactions of the Royal Society; and other works. MACPHERSON, James; a Scottish writer, distinguished in literary history for his translations or imitations of Gaelic poems, said to have been composed in the third century. He was born in 1738, and studied at Aberdeen and Edinburgh. Having published Fragments of Ancient Poetry, translated from the Gaelic or Erse Language, a subscription was raised to enable him to collect additional specimens of national poetry. He produced, as the fruit of his researches, Fingal, an ancient Epic Poem, translated from the Gaelic (1762, 4to.); Temora, and other Poems (1763, 4to.); professedly translated from originals by Ossian, the son of Fingal, a Gaelic prince of the third century, and his contemporaries. (For an account of the controversy on this subject, see Ossian.) From the evidence of the contending parties, it may be concluded, that Macpherson's prose epics were founded on traditional narratives current among the Highlanders; but the date of the oldest of their lays is comparatively modern; and it is now difficult, if not impossible, to ascertain the precise extent of his obligations to the Gaelic bards of former ages. Mr. Macpherson was afterwards agent to the nabob of Arcot, in consequence of which he had a seat in the house of commons from 1780 to 1790. He died in 1796, and was interred in Westminster abbey. He was also the author of a prose translation of Homer's Iliad, and of some other works.

MACRABIOTICS (from pakpos, long, and Bios, life); the science of prolonging life. Hufeland called his well known work Makrabiotik, or the Art of prolonging human Life. (See Longevity.)

MACROBIUS, Aurelius Ambrosius Theodosius; a Latin author, in the reign of the emperor Theodosius, to whom he officiated as an officer of the wardrobe, and enjoyed a considerable share of the imperial favor. The country of his birth, as well as the religion which he professed, are both uncertain. He was the author of a miscellaneous work, entitled Saturnalia, curious for its criticisms, and valuable for the light it throws upon the manners and customs of antiquity; a commentary on Cicero's Somnium Scipionis, in two books, valuable for the exposition it affords of the doctrines of Pythagoras, with respect to the harmony of the spheres; and a treatise De Differentiis et Societatibus Græci Latinique Verbi. There are several editions of this author's writ

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ings, the best of which are those of 1670, Leyden, and 1774, Leipsic. He is supposed to have died about the year 420.

MADAGASCAR; an island of Africa, on the eastern coast, separated from the continent by the channel of Mozambique, which is about 270 miles across. It extends from 11° 57' to 25° 40′ S. lat., and from 43° 33′ to 50° 25′ E. lon., and is about 900 miles long, and from 120 to 300 broad; square miles, about 220,000; population, uncertain; estimated by Flacourt at 1,600,000; by Rondoux, at 3,000,000; by Rochon, at 4,000,000. It is one of the largest islands in the world, and is remarkable for its fertility. The surface is greatly diversified, being intersected, throughout its whole length, by a chain of lofty mountains, the highest summits of which are said to be about 11,000 feet above the sea. The scenery of these mountains is often grand and picturesque. The forests abound in beautiful trees, as palms, ebony, wood for dyeing, bamboos of enormous size, orange and lemon trees. The botany of the island is interesting; iron mines abound in various parts; other minerals are found; but the mineralogy of the island has been but little explored. The country is well watered by numerous streams, mostly small, which descend from the mountains. In this genial climate, they produce a luxuriant fertility. Rice is the staple food of the inhabitants. Other productions are potatoes, sugar, silk, &c. The sheep produce fine wool. The cocoa-nut, banana, &c., flourish. The inhabitants are composed of two distinct races, the Arabs or descendants of foreign colonists, and the Negroes or original inhabitants of the island. The character of the inhabitants differs much in the different parts of the island, and the accounts of writers are very discordant on this subject. But, in reality, too little is known of the greater part of the island, to afford grounds for any safe opinions. The name and position of this island were first made known to Europeans by Marco Polo, in the thirteenth century, although it had been known to the Arabs for several centuries. It was visited by the Portuguese in the beginning of the sixteenth century. The French made attempts to found colonies there in the middle of the seventeenth century, but abandoned the island after many struggles with the natives. In 1745, they made new attempts, but without much success. In 1814, it was claimed by England as a dependency of Mauritius, which had been ceded to her by France, and some settle