people, and originally the clergy wore no stockings; but afterwards the legs were covered with cloth, fastened with bandages. They also wore mantles, reaching hardly to the knee. In the ninth century, the greatest princes wore wooden shoes the soles being of wood, and the upper part, of lether, tied with thongs. QUESTIONS. 37. Who were the ancestors of the English? What is the meaning of the word England? 38. Who conquered Britain? Why were the Saxons invited to England, and when did they first arrive? 39. Why did the Saxons remain in England? 40. Were the Britons alarmed at the settlement of the Saxons in England? 41. Did the Britons resist the Saxons? 42. Who were the Saxon chiefs? Who conquered England? 43. Who founded the kingdom of Sussex ? 44. Who founded the kingdom of Wessex? 45. Who founded other kingdoms in England? How many kingdoms did the Saxons found in England? What were they called? Who first united the kingdoms of the Saxons? 46. What nations invaded England after the Saxons? Who was the most illustrious defender of the kingdom? 47. What stratagem did Alfred use to defeat the Danes? 48. When and how was England conquered by the Danes? 49. Give an account of Harold and Hardicanute? 50. When did the Normans conquer England, and who was the conquering chief? 51. State what were the revolutions in England? Who were the ancestors of the English? 52. When was the Christian religion introduced into England? How did the Saxons treat Christianity? 53. How were the Saxons converted to Christianity? 54. What was the state of learning among the Saxons? When and how was learning introduced into England? 55. What did the Saxons use instead of figures in numbering? 56. What was the state of law and medicine? 57. What was the state of the arts? 58. What was the state of architecture? 59. What was the trade of the Saxons? 60. What was used for coin among the Saxons? 61. Describe the persons of the Saxons. 62. What was the state of morals among the Saxons? 63. 64. Describe the superstition of the Saxons. 65. What was the religion and love of music among the Saxons? 66. What were the vices of the Saxons? 67. What were the virtues of the Saxons? 68. What was the dress of the Saxons? CHAPTER IV. AFTER THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 69. Agriculture. The conquest of England by William, of Normandy, was followed by great changes in the state of England. Many of the Norman nobility settled in England; many of the ecclesiastical benefices were bestowed on Norman clergy; and many laymen of other descriptions followed William and took up their abode in England. By these Normans, the agriculture of England was improved. The instruments of husbandry, such as carts, harrows, sythes, sickles and flails, were nearly of the form now used; but the plow had but one handle, which the plowman held with one hand, having in the other an instrument for cleansing the plow and breaking clods. The Norman plow had two wheels, and was drawn by one or two oxen. 70. Architecture. Under the Norman princes, great improvements were made in the art of building, particularly in the erection of many churches and monasteries. The ancient edifices were demolished, and others of greater magnificence were erected; and during this period, was introduced the style of building called Gothic. But the clergy and monks possessed the most wealth and influence, and their zeal was directed to the building of churches, on which they bestowed immense labor and expense. But the houses of common citizens and burgesses were yet very mean. Even in London, the houses of mechanics and common burgesses were built of wood, and covered with reeds or straw, down to the close of the twelfth century. 71. Castles. During the period under consideration, murders, robberies and violence were so common, that the barons of England, as in France, erected castles for their residence. Their situation was generally on an eminence and near a river. The site was of considerable extent, and surrounded by a broad, deep ditch, called the foss, and sometimes filled with water. Before the great gate was an out-work, called a barbacan or antemural, which was a strong high wall with turrets upon it, for defense of the gate and drawbridge over the ditch. On the inside of the ditch was the wall of the castle, eight or ten feet thick and twenty or thirty feet high, with a parapet, and on the top crennels, a sort of embrasures. From the top of this wall and from the roofs of buildings, the defenders discharged arrows, darts and stones upon the assailants. The gate of the castle in this wall was fortified with a tower on each side; it had thick folding doors of oak, with an iron portcullis. Within this outward wall was an open space, and commonly a chapel. Within this was another wall, and within that the chief tower, four or five stories high, with thick walls. This was the residence of the prince, prelate or baron to whom the castle belonged. Under ground was a vault or dungeon for the confinement of prisoners. 72. Armor. The art of making defensive armor was cultivated in the early stages of civilization. It was known to the Saxons before the conquest, and was improved under the Norman race of kings. A suit of armor consisted of many pieces of metal, nicely jointed to allow free motion to the limbs; finely polished and beautifully gilt. Samples of this armor are now to be seen in the tower of London. 73. Clothing. The dressing and spinning of wool and flax was practiced before the conquest; but these arts were greatly improved by the Flemings who settled in England after the conquest. There were gilds or fraternities of weavers which had royal charters, with various privileges. Tapestry hangings, on which were historical representations, were made in England; and the Saxon females were distinguished for making ele gant embroidery, adorned with figures of men, beasts, birds and flowers. 74. Greek fire. Among the weapons of defense, in war, was a composition called Greek fire, as it was imported from the eastern empire. This was kept in vials or pots, and discharged from machines upon an attacking enemy. It burnt with a bright flame, and so intense a heat, as to consume any combustible substance. It penetrated the warrior's armor, and peeled his flesh from his bones. The composition of it was kept a profound secret; but it is now known to have been a compound of naptha, bitumen and sulphur. It was an object of great terror to besiegers of cities and castles. 75. Chivalry. It was under the Norman princes that chivalry was introduced into England. Noble youths intended for the profession of arms, were placed, as pages or valets, in the families of great barons, where they were instructed in the rules of courtesy and politeness, and in martial exercises. The courts of princes and barons became schools of chivalry, in which young men were instructed in dancing, riding, hawking, hunting, tilting, and other accomplishments to qualify themselves for the honors of knighthood. From pages they were advanced to the rank of esquires. 76. Exercises: tilts and tournaments. Once a week in Lent, crowds of sprightly youth, mounted on horseback, rode into the fields in bands, armed with lances and shields, and exhibited representations of battles. Many of the young nobility, not yet knighted, issued from the houses of princes, bishops, earls, and barons, to make trial of their skill and strength in arms. The hope of victory rouses their spirits; their fiery steeds neigh, prance, and champ their foaming bits. signal given, the sports begin; the youths, divided into bands, encounter each other. Some fly, others pursue without overtaking them; while in another quarter, one band overtakes and overthrows another. The 77. Knighthood. After spending seven or eight years in these schools in the station of esquires, these youths received the honors of knighthood, from the prince or baron. To prepare for this ceremony, they were obliged to submit to severe fastings, to spend nights in prayer, in a church—to receive the sacrament, to bathe and put on white robes, confess their sins, and hear sermons, in which Christian morals were explained. Thus prepared, the candidate went to a church, and advanced to the altar with his sword slung in a scarf about his neck. This sword he presented to the priest, who blessed and returned it. When the candidate approached the personage who was to perform the ceremony, he fell on his knees and delivered him his sword. 78. Dubbing of Knights. The candidate having taken an oath, was adorned with the armor and ensigns of knighthood, by the knights and ladies attending the ceremony. First they put on his spurs, beginning with his left foot; next his coat of mail; then his cuirass, then the armor for his legs, hands, and arms; and lastly, they girt on his sword. Then the king or baron de scended from his throne or seat, and gave him the accolade, which was three gentle strokes with the flat of his sword on the shoulder, or with the palm of his hand on the cheek; pronouncing in the name of St. George, “1 make thee a knight; be brave, hardy and loyal." The young knight then rose, put on his shield and helmet, mounted his horse without the stirrup, and displayed his dexterity in the management of his horse, amidst the acclamations of a multitude of spectators. 79. Coats of arms, &c. The Saxon warriors adopted the practice of adorning their shields and banners with the figures of animals, or other devices, every one according to his own fancy. But after the conquest, and in the times of the first crusades, more attention was given to these devices; families adopted such as suited their fancy; they were appropriated to families, and became hereditary. This was the origin of heraldry, which, in England, is quite a science; every family of distinction having its escutcheon. 80. Magnificence. Increase of wealth was attended with an increase of magnificence. Instead of mean houses, in which the English used to spend their nights in feasting and revelry, the Norman barons dwelt in |