commence in a State, turnpike, county, or township road, and pass on and intersect another State, turnpike, county, or township road; nor over turnpike and plank roads, except free turnpikes.

In each township through which any ditch, drain, or water-course shall have been constructed, it is the duty of the electors at the spring election, each year, to elect a supervisor of ditches, who is required to see that such ditches, drains, or water-courses are kept open and in good repair.

Questions-What is said in the lesson in relation to the organization of new townships? Of their corporate powers? Of the election of township officers? Of their term of office? What is said of the duties of trustees? Of the number of justices of the peace in each township? Mention some of the duties of the township clerk. Of treasurer. Of assessors. What is said as to the number of constables? Of their relations to justices of the peace? Mention their duties. What is required of supervisors of roads? What is said of their jurisdiction? Of the election and duties of supervisors of ditches?

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

CITIES AND VILLAGES.

Where a large number of houses and inhabitants are established in one place, it is found necessary for the preservation of good order, and for the purpose of making those public improvements essential for the convenience and comfort of the people, to exercise powers of government not conferred upon townships, and therefore

the people of such places are authorized by law to unite in a body politic, and when so united their corporations are known as cities or villages.

In respect to the exercise of certain corporate powers, and to the number, character, power and duties of certain officers, these corporations are divided into cities of the first, and cities of the second class; incorporated villages, and incorporated villages for special purposes.

Cities having a population of over twenty thousand are deemed cities of the first class; those with less than that number, cities of the second class.

The law provides that no city of the second class shall be advanced to the grade of a city of the first class, until it shall have attained a population of twenty thousand.

No incorporated village shall be advanced to the grade of a city of the second class until it shall have attained a population of five thousand.

No incorporated village for special purposes shall be advanced to the grade of an incorporated village until it shall have obtained a population of five hundred.

No village shall be incorporated with a less number of inhabitants than five hundred.

All municipal corporations are vested with certain general powers; may sue and be sued, contract and be contracted with, and may hold and possess property, real and personal.

The powers conferred upon these corporations differ according to their grade; greater powers and privileges being conferred upon municipalities of the higher class or grade.

When a large number of persons are assembled together, as in our large cities, their wants and necessities are more diversified, and their relative rights and duties more difficult to adjust, and hence the necessity for conferring greater powers upon the government of such localities.

As certain rules and regulations which could not be anticipated by the General Assembly, are found necessary in cities and villages, limited legislative powers are conferred upon them, which is exercised by a body elected by the people, known as trustees, councilmen, or alder.nen.

The cities are divided into wards or districts for the sake of convenience, each ward being entitled to be represented in the government of the city.

Each municipality has a chief executive officer, called a mayor, and such other subordinate officers as are authorized by law, to superintend the interests of the municipality, and to preserve good order therein.

Questions-What is said as to the organization of cities and villiages, and the necessity therefor? Their classification? Of their general powers? Are their powers equal? Why not? What is said of their legislative powers? Of wards? Of officers ?

JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT.

CHAPTER XXXIX.

ESTABLISHMENT OF COURTS-THE SUPREME COURT AND ITS

JURISDICTION.

As people often fail to agree with regard to their relative rights and duties, and as they sometimes violate their agreements with each other, and even violate and disobey those rules and regulations prescribed for their conduct, it is necessary that tribunals should be provided to administer justice, to determine and declare the rights of parties, to investigate and decide whether the laws are observed or violated, and to declare and pronounce judgment according to law and the just deserts of the citizen. These determinations are called judicial.

By the constitution of the State, the judicial power is vested in a supreme court, in district courts, courts of common pleas, courts of probate, justices of the peace, and in such other courts, inferior to the supreme court, as the General Assembly may establish.

The supreme court consists of five judges, who hold their office for the term of five years.

The original jurisdiction of this court is limited to cases in quo warranto, mandamus, habeas corpus, and procedendo.

Quo warranto means, "by what authority."

It is the name of a writ against a person who has taken possession of an office or franchise and continues to hold possession thereof wrongfully. When the right of a person to act in an official capacity is questioned, proceedings are had in the supreme court to determine his right to the office; and this is called a proceeding in quo war

ranto.

The General Assembly sometimes confers upon associations or individuals, authority to do certain acts, which without such authority they could not do. And where parties assume to do these acts without such authority, they may be proceeded against in quo warranto.

Mandamus means to order or command. It is the name of a writ issued to any inferior tribunal, corporation, board, or person to compel the performance of an act which the law enjoins as a duty resulting from an office, trust or station.

Habeas corpus is from the Latin, and means, "you may have the body," or, "that you have the body." In law it is a writ designed to bring a party before a court or judge; especially one to enquire into the cause of a person's imprisonment, or detention by another, with the view to protect the rights of personal liberty.

Procedendo is the name of a writ by which a cause which has been removed from an inferior to a superior