TENSES.

Tenses are modifications of the verb to denote the relation of the event to time.

There are three divisions of time; present, past, and future.

Remark.-Strictly speaking, present time is merely the point at which the past and the future meet; and if we take the smallest imaginable point of time for the present, this portion will contain some of the past and some of the future. Thus, if we assume this hour as the present time, a part of the hour is past and a part to come; so if we take this minute or second. But we may take any portion of time—a day, a year, or a century—and consider the whole of it as constituting present time, and the rest of time as past or future.

Thus, "I am writing this moment," "I have written a letter to-day;" แ Many great works have been written in this century," "A great change has taken place since the birth of Christ." In the last example, the whole period from the birth of Christ, including the moment of speaking, is taken as present time. "Many earthquakes have occurred since the creation." Here the creation is the beginning of the time which is assumed as present.

EXERCISES.

What division of time is referred to in each of the following sentences?

I walked yesterday. I walk to-day. I will walk to-morrow. John loves James. You study well to-day. Cæsar defeated Pompey. Washington commanded the army. George is asleep. God loves good men. I will go home. Benjamin went to town last week. James stayed at home.

I have written a letter to-day. You had written your letter, before I commenced mine. You will have written three, before dinner. Many discoveries have been made in the present century. Many discoveries had been made before the commencement of this century.

In each division there are two tenses, one of which denotes the occurrence of the event in the division of time referred to; the other denotes the

What are tenses?

How many divisions of time?

How many tenses in each division?

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event as perfect, that is, as having already taken place, in the time.

Thus we have six tenses, which are named as follows:

2. Future Perfect Tense ...... as, "I shall have written."

FORMATION

OF THE PERFECT

TENSES.

Writ

I have is the present tense of the verb to have; I had is the past tense, and I shall have the future tense of to have. ten is the auxiliary perfect participle of the verb to write.

The perfect tenses are composed of the present, past, and future tenses of the verb to have and the auxiliary perfect participle of the principal verb, which in the present instance is to write. The tense of the verb to have denotes the time, and the perfect participle denotes the completion of the action. Thus,

Remarks.-1. To denote an action or state as imperfect, that is, as going on and not completed, the various tenses of the verb to be are used with the imperfect participle. Thus,

2. Some verbs, from the nature of their signification, denote the continuance of the action; as, "I know him." These have none of the imperfect forms: "I am knowing him," is not used.

PRESENT TENSE.

The Present tense expresses what takes place in present time; as, "I love; I am loved."

Remarks.-1. Any existing custom or general truth may be expressed by this tense; as, "Thomas visits me every day;" "Vice produces misery."

2. In animated narration, this tense is sometimes used to express past events; the speaker is supposed to become so much interested that the events seem to be passing before him; as,

"What sounds upon the midnight wind
Approach so rapidly behind?

It is, it is, the tramp of steeds,

Matilda hears the sound, she speeds;

Seizes upon the leader's rein."

This tense is sometimes used, in dependent clauses, to express future events, chiefly after when, as soon as, till, after, before, and after relative pronouns; as, "I shall see him when he comes," that is, shall have come; "I will go when John rises,” that is, shall have risen; "You will not see clearly till daylight appears;" "I shall get a letter after the mail arrives ;" "He will not get a letter before the mail arrives ;" "He will kill every one whom he meets."

Remark. This tense may be used in speaking of an author long since dead, when we refer to his works which still exist; as, "Virgil imitates Homer."

How is imperfect action denoted?

Define the present tense.

What may be expressed by this tense?

Is this tense ever used to express past events?

When is it used to express future events?

How may this tense be used in speaking of an author who is dead?

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PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. [PERFECT.]

The Present Perfect tense represents an action or state as perfect or finished, in present time; as, "I have walked to-day;" "John has studied this week;" ;""Many excellent works have been written in this century."

Note. The time is present, though the action or state is past; this tense cannot be used, if the smallest portion of time has intervened between that which is assumed as present, and that in which the event took place. Thus it would be incorrect to say, “I have seen him a moment ago."

Remarks.-1. This tense may be used when we speak of an author long since dead, when the works to which we refer are still in existence; as, "Milton has written some noble works."

Here we refer not so much to the act of writing, as to Milton's character as a writer, as shown in the works which still exist. But if the works did not remain, we should say, "Milton wrote;" and even if the work is extant, if we refer to the act of writing, we use the past tense; as, "Milton wrote Paradise Lost."

2. This tense, as well as the present, is sometimes used in dependent clauses to express a future event; as, "When he has finished his studies, he will go home," that is, when he shall have finished.

PAST TENSE. [IMPERFECT.]

The Past tense expresses what took place in past time; as, "I wrote a letter yesterday;" "God created the world;""Cæsar was killed by Brutus."

Remarks.-1. This tense is used only when the time has completely expired; but we sometimes say, "He walked to-day," referring to a portion of the day which has expired.

2. As the present time sometimes denotes a present custom, so this tense sometimes denotes a past custom; as,

"Thirty steeds, both fleet and wight,

Stood saddled in stable day and night,

A hundred more fed free in stall;-
Such was the custom in Branksome Hall."

Define the present perfect tense.
How may this tense be used in speaking
of an anthor who is dead?

When is it used to express a future event?

Define the past tense.

When only is this tense used?

Does this tense ever denote a custom?

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

[PLUPERFECT.]

The Past Perfect tense represents an action or state as perfect or finished at some past time referred to; as, "I had written a letter when he arrived;" "The ship had sailed before he reached Boston."

FUTURE.

The Future tense expresses what will take place hereafter; as, "George will go to town, and I shall see him."

Remark. A future custom may be expressed by this tense; as, "The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid." "And the lion shall eat straw like the ox."

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

[SECOND FUTURE.]

The Future Perfect tense represents an action or state as perfect or finished at some future time; as, "I shall have dined at one o'clock;" "I will go before I shall have seen him."

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Note. In the second example, the future time to which shall have seen belongs, is not the same as that to which will go refers; the meaning is, "I will go before the time at which I shall have seen him;" at which (time) denoting the future time to which shall have seen refers.

SIGNS OF THE TENSES.

PRESENT. In the active voice, same as the simple form of the infinitive; after thou, est is annexed to the simple form; after a word in the third person, s is annexed.

In the passive voice, am, are, art, and is, with the passive participle.

PRESENT PERFECT.-Have, hast, and has.

Define the past perfect tense.
Define the future tense.

Does this tense ever denote a custom?
Define the future perfect tense.